331 -V
MT DEPARTMENT OF LABOR & INDUSTRY
RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS BUREAU
1321 LOCKEY
P.O. BOX 1728
HELENA, MT 59624
(406) 444-2430
JOB
SERVICE
RFTIIRN
ub
^m
ANACONDA
307 E. Park
Anaconda, MT 59711
(563-3444)
MONTANA LOCAL JOB SERVICE OFFICE LISTING
DILLON
126 S. Montana St.
Dillon, MT 59725
(683-5501)
HELENA PROGRAM OFFICE
529 N. Warren
Helena, MT 59601
(442-2531)
MONTANA STATE LIBRARY
S 331,4 Llmw 1985 c 1 Kragh
Montana women in the '80 s.
3 0864 00050980 5
POLSON
417 Main Street
P.O. Box 970
Poison, MT 69860
(883-5261)
BILLINGS EAST
624 N. 24th St.
Billings, MT 59101
(248-7371)
GLASGOW
238 2nd Ave. S.
Glasgow, MT 59230
(228-9369)
KALI SPELL
427 1st. Ave. E.
Kalispell, MT 59901
(257-5627)
SHELBY
401 1st Street S.
Shelby, MT 59474
(434-5161)
BILLINGS WEST
1425 Broadwater Ave.
Suite 3
Billings, MT 59102
(259-5529)
GLENDIVE
211 S. Kendrick
Glendive, MT 59330
(365-3314)
LEWISTOWN
324 W. Broadway
Lewistown, MT 59457
(538-8701)
SIDNEY
120 S. Central
Sidney, MT 59270
(482-1204)
BOZEMAN
220 W. Lamme
Bozeman, MT 59715
(586-5455)
GREAT FALLS
1018 7th St. S.
Great Falls, MT 59405
(761-1730)
LIBBY
314 S. California
Libby, MT 59923
(293-2682)
THOMPSON FALLS
608 Main Street
Thompson Falls, MT 59873
(827-3472)
BUTTE
206 W. Granite
Butte, MT 59703
(782-0417)
HAMILTON
333 Main Street
P.O. Box 73
Hamilton, MT 59840
(363-1822)
LIVINGSTON
228 S. Main
P.O. Box 1199
Livingston, MT 59047
(222-0520)
WOLF POINT
200 Highway 2 East
Wolf Point, MT 59201
(653-1720)
BUTTE PROGRAM OFFICE HAVRE
Idaho &. Mercury Sts .
Butte, MT 59701
(792-9115)
416 1st. St.
Havre, MT 59501
(265-5847)
MILES CITY
12 N. 10th
Miles City, MT 59301
(232-1316)
CUT BANK
513 E. Main
Cut Bank, MT 59427
(873-2191)
HELENA
715 Front Street
Helena, MT 59601
(449-3044)
MISSOULA
539 S. 3rd St. W.
P.O. Box 5027
Missoula, MT 59806
(728-7060)
HOW TO READ FOOTNOTES
Footnotes in this publication are added to the text in numerical
order, starting over with one (1) at each new section. Footnote
numbers are enclosed in parenthesis; for example, footnote 1 would
look like this (1). To find out the source of the footnote, look at
the end of each section of the publication. A listing of all footnotes
from that particular section is included in numerical order.
MONTANA WOMEN IN THE '80's
STATE OF MONTANA
TED SCHWINDEN, GOVERNOR
MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND INDUSTRY
DAVID E. WANZENRIED, COMMISSIONER
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CONTACT:
BOB RAFFERTY, CHIEF
RESEARCH & ANALYSIS BUREAU
MT DEPARTMENT OF LABOR & INDUSTRY
P.O. BOX 1728
HELENA, MT 59624
(406) 444-2430
JANUARY 1985
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND INDUSTRY
COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE
TED SCHWINDEN QOVERNOB
STATE OF MONTANA
(4()(i)^44 IMil
STATE CAPITl^L
HELENA MONTANA 59b/l)
January 11, 1985
This publication is the result of a special effort by several groups and
individuals. Because of this effort, this publication has become the
most complete source of data on Montana women currently available.
A special thank you to:
The Governor's Women in Employment Advisory Council for their
impetus in getting the project started, and council members Z.I.
Giraldo and Susan Seliq Wallwork for their help in proofing the
final document.
The Women's Publication Advisory Council for providing a focus,
a goal, and spending numerous hours making this publication possible.
The government agencies and Montana business people who cooperated
and contributed data for the publication.
Gail Kragh, the intern who gathered data, wrote the text, and
entered it into the computer. Her dedication and effort made this
publ ication a reali ty.
Louis LaFloe of the Department of Highways who designed the cover.
His creativity and contribution are greatly appreciated.
WID E. WANZ
[)AVID E. WANZENRIED
Commissioner
"KN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EUPLOyER"
ii
INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY
Montana's women of the 80 ' s - are they so very different from
women who lived 100 years ago, or 50 years ago, or even 5 years ago?
Are women now at the vortex of sweeping changes in demographic,
social, and economic patterns?
Women are an active and vital component of this country's work
force. Perhaps no other change has more far reaching implications for
society and the economy than the dramatic increase in labor force
participation of women. Their numbers have grown from 4.0 million in
1890 to a 1983 total of 48.5 million for the nation.
Following World War II, which had drawn a great number of women
into the labor market, many returned to full-time home and family
duties. Many women, however, continued to enter the labor force.
In Montana, the 1950 Census reports a female labor force partici-
pation rate of 25.2 percent, and 32.6 percent in 1960. A 1970 to 1980
comparison shows a growth from 38.6 percent to 49.0 percent. Current
Population Survey (CPS) household data set the 1983 civilian labor
force participation rate as 53.9 percent for females.
Women are an important element of the work world, and conversely,
employment is an undeniable factor in each woman's life. It is
estimated that only one out of ten women will NEVER work outside the
home. Today's young woman is likely to spend 30 or more years in the
paid work force. A married woman with no children will work an estimat-
ed 35 years. A mother can expect to spend 22 years in a paid job if
she has 2 children, and 17 years with 4 children or more.
In a discussion of women and employment, it is important to
look beyond the number employed, and to examine the nature of the
positions occupied. Tliough many of the occupations have remained the
same since 1900, their labor force distribution has changed. For exam-
ple, in both 1900 and 1980, 97 percent of all private household workers
were female. These workers composed 28.7 percent of the total female
labor force in 1900, whereas the 1980 percentage is 2.5. Overall, the
female-dominated occupations account for 54.4 percent of the 1900 female
labor force and 32.2 percent in 1980.
Changes are slowly being made in the definition of "women's work".
In spite of remarkable gains made in the number of female craft and
kindred workers, such as a 260 percent gain in the number of female
carpenters and 800 percent growth for machinists, women are far from
realizing equitable representation in tliese occupation.^ .
As of 1980, women are st.il] only 1.6 percent of all c:arp<Mitors , and 4.9
percent of machinists. The most notable differences from 1970 to 1980
include substantial increases in the percentage of women managers
(11.6%), sales supervisors (11.2%), and accountant/auditors (13.6%).
There were decreases in the percentage of women in the categories of
maids/housemen (-18.5%), cooks (-10%), and elementary teachers (-8.5%).
Educational advancement and increased financial/credit opportuni-
ties have helped make starting one's own business an increasingly
viable option for women. From 1977 to 1980, the number of female-
owned sole proprietorships in the United States increased 33 percent.
The number of self-employed women rose by 10 percent from 1980 to 1982.
IV
INTRODUCTION, cont.
The past 20 years have witnessed tremendous growth in female
military enlistment. In 1962, U.S. military women were outnumbered by
men 70 to 1. By 1972 there existed a 43 to 1 ratio, and in 1982 the
male-to-female ratio of resident military personnel had declined to
11 to 1. Three factors encouraged this growth: the 1973 change to
an all-volunteer military, incieaoed i eciui Liiient for both sexes, and
the general movement into the labor force by women.
On a national scale tlie female/male earnings ratio has clianged
little since 1955. Women's median yearly earnings as a percentage of
men's has continued to hover near 60 percent. Montana Census figures
are even lower.
MONTANA
Median Income of Persons with Earnings Who Worked 50-52 weeks.
Women Men Ratio
1970 (ages 14 & over) $3,929 $ 7,521 52.2%
1980 (ages 15 & over) $7,915 $15,665 50.5%
Some of the most glaring income differences exist for the growing
number of women maintaining families. This is illustrated by median
annual income by family type. Not only was female householder income
less than one-half (44.0%) tliat of all husband-wife families, but the
1970-81 income growth was lowest for female householders.
By 1983, 16 percent of all U.S. families were maintained by women,
the number having more than doubled since 1940.
One out of every three female-headed families lives in poverty,
compared to 1 out of 9 male-headed householders. One-half of all
families in poverty in the U.S. are headed by women and these families
are 10 times more likely than their male >-ounterparts to remain poor.
Looking at college enrollment in the U.S. since 1965, the percent-
age of women has grown from 38.7 percent to slightly over half of
enrol lees .
In June of 1982, for the first time in 36 years, v/omen received
over one-half (50.3%) of all U.S. bachelor's degrees. Although female
enrollment has exceeded that for males since 1979, National Center for
Education Statistics records dating back to 1870 report more bachelor's
degrees awarded to women only three times prior to 1982. This occurred
during the war-related years of 1944, 1945, and 1946.
These are just a few of the "facts and figures" you will find in
this publication. It is not the intent of this publication to take a
stand on any of the women's issues that may be mentioned here, but only
to provide the facts along with explanations on how to interpret data
presented in table or graph format so tliat the readers may draw
their own conclusions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
INTRODUCTION iv - v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
INDEX OF TABLES AND GRAPHS vii - xi
DEFINITIONS xii - xiv
SECTION A: LABOR FORCE CHARACTERISTICS 1-66
Labor Force Participation 3- 4
Full-Time and Part-time Employment 12 - 13
Job Sharing/Flextime 18
Unemployment Rates 19 - 20
Job Service/Project Challenge 23
Displaced Homemakers 25
Occupational Distribution 26 - 29
Self-Employed Women & Women-Owned Businesses 49 - 50
Agriculture 53 - 54
Childcare 59 - 60
Armed Forces/Veterans 62 - 63
SECTION B: INCOME 67 - 102
Wagegap 69 - 74
Women Maintaining Families 86 - 89
SECTION C: EDUCATION 103 - 120
Education 105 - 107
SECTION D: OLDER WORKERS 121 - 134
Older Workers 123 - 126
SECTION E: WOMEN IN PUBLIC OFFICE 135 - 140
Women in Public Office 137
SECTION F: LAWS, LEGISLATION, RESOURCES, & REFERENCES . . . 141 - 166
Laws Affecting Women 143 - 150
Montana Legislation: Selected Houso & Senate Bills. . . 151 - 152
Resources: Organizations 153 - 158
References and Other Reading 159 - 160
INDEX BY SUBJECT 161 - 164
APPENDIX A: Placement Data 167 - 184
APPENDIX B: Status of Civilian Labor Force by County. . . . 185 - 198
VI
INDEX OF TABLES
Section A Tables: PAGE
A-1 EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF NON INSTITUTIONAL POPULATION BY SEX. . 5
A-2 U.S. CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE BY SEX, AGE & RACE 6
A-3 U.S. EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF CIVILIAN NON INSTITUTIONAL
POPULATION BY FAMILY RELATIONSHIP 7
A- 4 MT CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE STATUS BY TYPE OF HOUSEHOLD .... 8
A- 5 MONTANA CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE STATE SUMMARY, 1970&1980. . 9
A-6 U.S. REASON NOT IN LABOR FORCE BY SEX, AGE, RACE 10
A-7 MT REASON NOT IN LABOR FORCE BY SEX, AGE, MARITAL STATUS . 11
A-8 U.S. FULL- & PART-TIME STATUS OF EMPLOYED PERSONS BY SEX . 14
A-9 U.S. EMPLOYED WOMEN BY FULL- OR PART-TIME STATUS 15
A- 10 MONTANA FULL- OR PART-TIME STATUS OF CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE. 16
A- 11 U.S. PERSONS AT WORK IN NONAGR I CULTURAL INDUSTRIES .... 17
A- 12 MONTANA UNEMPLOYED PERSONS BY DURATION OF UNEMPLOYMENT . . 20
A- 13 U.S. UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF WOMEN AND MEN 21
A-14 MONTANA INDIVIDUALS PLACED IN REGULAR JOBS 23
A- 15 MONTANA DEGREE OF SERVICE PROVIDED FEMALE JOB
SERVICE APPLICANTS 24
A-16 OCCUPATIONS RANKED BY SIZE OF ABSOLUTE EMPLOYMENT CHANGES. 26
A- 17 U.S. FEMALE-DOMINATED OCCUPATIONS 30- 31
A- 18 U.S. 25 OCCUPATIONS WITH LARGEST NUMBER MEN AND
PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN IN EACH OCCUPATION 32
A- 19 U.S. FEMALE GAINS AS CRAFT & KINDRED WORKERS 32
A-20 U.S. 25 OCCUPATIONS WITH LARGEST NUMBER WOMEN 33
A-21 U.S. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYED WOMEN BY MAJOR OCC . . 34
A-22 MONTANA DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATION 35
A-23 MONTANA DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY 36
A- 2 4 MONTANA FEMALE EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY 36
Vll
Section A Tables, cont.
PAGE
A-25 MONTANA EMPLOYED PERSONS BY DETAILED OCCUPATION 37- 42
A-26 MONTANA CLASS OF WORKER BY SEX AND RACE, 1970 & 1980 . . . 43- 44
A-27 MONTANA STATE GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN 46
A-28 U.S. WOMEN APPRENTICES 47
A-29 MONTANA FEMALE & MINORITY-FEMALE REGISTERED APPRENTICES. . 48
A-30 U.S. AND MONTANA SOLE PROPRIETORSHIPS 49
A-31 MONTANA SMALL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION LOANS 50
A-32 U.S. & MONTANA SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP BUSINESSES:
BUSINESS RECEIPTS AND NET INCOME 51
A-33 U.S. PERSONS EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 55
A-34 MONTANA NUMBER EMPLOYED IN FARM OCCUPATIONS BY SEX .... 56
A-35 MONTANA 1982 VS 1978 AGRICULTURAL COMPARISONS 57
A-36 U.S. LABOR FORCE STATUS OF WOMEN AGE 18-44 61
A-37 U.S. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL TYPE OF CHILDCARE
ARRANGEMENTS USED BY MOTHERS 18-44 YEARS OLD 61
A-38 U.S. MEMBERS OF THE ARMED FORCES BY SEX 64
A- 3 9 MONTANA NUMBER OF VETERANS BY SEX, AGE, AND RACE 65
A- 40 MONTANA FEMALE VETERANS 65
Section B Tables:
B-1 U.S. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES, 1981 72
B-2 MONTANA STATE GOVERNMENT SALARY ANALYSIS BY SEX 73
B-3 U.S. MEDIAN HOURLY EARNINGS BY SEX, AGE 74
B-4 MONTANA JOB PLACEMENTS BY HOURLY WAGE RATE BY SEX 74
B-5 U.S. COMPARISON OF MEDIAN EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME WORKERS. . 75
B-6 U.S. MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS BY AGE, SEX, SCHOOL COMPLETED. 76
B-7 MONTANA MEAN WEEKLY EARNINGS BY AGE, SEX, YEARS OF SCHOOL. 76
Vlll
Section B Tables, cont. PAGE
B-8 MONTANA INCOME BY AGE, SEX, YEARS OF SCHOOL, RACE 77- 79
B-9 MONTANA MEAN ANNUAL INCOME BY AGE, SEX, SCHOOL COMPLETED . 80
B-]0 U.S. MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATION, BY SEX 81
B-11 U.S. MEDIAN USUAL WEEKLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATION, BY SEX. . 81
B-12 U.S. MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS FULL-TIME WAGE AND
SALARY WORKERS BY OCCUPATION AND SEX 82
B-13 U.S. OCCUPATIONS WITH HIGHEST MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS ... 83
B-14 MONTANA MEAN WEEKLY EARNINGS FULL-TIME WORKERS 84
B-15 MT MEDIAN EARNINGS BY OCCUPATION, BY SEX, BY RACE 1979 . . 85
B-16 MONTANA EARNINGS BY OCCUPATION OF EXPERIENCED CIVILIAN
LABOR FORCE, BY SEX, 1969 85
B-17 MARITAL STATUS BREAKDOWN OF U.S. WOMEN MAINTAIN FAMILIES . 86
B-18 U.S. LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES 86
B-19 U.S. UNEMPLOYMENT RATES, MARCH 1983 87
B-20 U.S. PERCENTAGE OF V^OMEN WITH CHILDREN UNDER 18 88
B-21 MONTANA HOUSEHOLDER LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES &
UNEMPLOYMENT RATES BY TYPE OF HOUSEHOLDER & RACE 88
B-22 POVERTY RATE OF MONTANA FEMALE HOUSEHOLDERS BY RACE. ... 89
B-23 U.S. DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY TYPES, SELECTED YEARS 1940-83. 90
B-24 U.S. MEDIAN INCOME BY RACE & TYPE OF FAMILY 91
B-25 MONTANA MEDIAN ANNUAL INCOME BY FAMILY TYPE 92
B-26 U.S. POVERTY RATES BY TYPE OF HOUSEHOLDER 93
B-27 U.S. WOMEN & MEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES BELOW POVERTY LEVEL. 94
B-28 U.S. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL & POVERTY . . . . '. ........ 95
B-29 U.S. POVERTY RATES FOR FEMALE HOUSEHOLDERS 95
B-30 MT PERSONS WITH INCOME BELOW POVERTY LEVEL BY SEX, AGE, RACE 96
B-31 MONTANA SOURCE OF INCOME & PERCENTAGE OF FAMILIES
RECEIVING EACH TYPE BY AGE, RACE, SEX, & INCOME 97- 99
B-3 2 MONTANA AFDC RECIPIENTS BY SEX & CATEGORY OF PAYEE .... 100
B-33 MONTANA MEDICADE RECIPIENTS BY SEX AND AGE 100
ix
Section C Tables
C-1 U.S. TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION.
C-2 MONTANA NUMBER ENROLLED IN COLLEGE BY AGE & SEX
PAGE
108
108
109
C-4 U.S. EARNED DEGREES CONFERRED BY TYPE OF DEGREE & SEX. . . 110
C-5 U.S. DEGREES CONFERRED BY SEX, BY FIELD OF STUDY 111-112
C-6 MONTANA HEGIS EARNED DEGREE SUMMARY BY FIELD OF STUDY. . . 113-117
C-3 U.S. TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
IN SELECTED MAJOR FIELDS OF STUDY BY SEX
Section D Tables;
D-1 U.S. CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE BY AGE . .
D-2 U.S. EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATION BY AGE
D-3 MONTANA 1980 EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF THE CIVILIAN
NON INSTITUTIONAL POPULATION BY SEX, RACE & AGE
D-4 U.S. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE & RATE WITH DISCOURAGED WORKERS .
D-5 U.S. MEDIAN WEEKS OF UNEMPLOYMENT BY SEX AND AGE ....
D-6 U.S. PERSONS NOT IM THE LABOR FORCE WHO DESIRE WORK. . .
D-7 U.S. SUPPLEMENTAL SECURITY INCOME FED. ADMINISTERED PMTS
D-8 OLD AGE, SURVIVORS, & DISABILITY INSURANCE BENEFITS. . .
127
127
128
129
130
131
132
132
Section E Tables;
E-1 MONTANA STATE & COUNTY ELECTED OFFICIALS, 1983-1984. ,
E-2 MONTANA MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS, 1984
E-3 U.S. WOMEN IN STATEWIDE ELECTIVE POSITIONS, 1983 . .
E-4 U.S. WOMEN APPOINTED TO STATE CABINET POSITIONS, 1983
E-5 U.S. WOMEN STATE LEGISLATORS, 1969-84
138
138
139
139
139
Appendix A Tables: PAGE
EASTERN MONTANA COLLEGE 168
ROCKY MOUNTAIN COLLEGE 169 - 170
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY 171 - 172
MT COLLEGE OF MINERAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 173
WESTERN MONTANA COLLEGE 174
NORTHERN MONTANA COLLEGE 175 - 176
CARROLL COLLEGE 177 - 179
FLATHEAD VALLEY COMMUNITY COLLEGE 180
UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA 181 - 183
Appendix B Tables:
EMPLOYMENT STATUS BY COUNTY, BY SEX, RACE, & AGE. . . . 186 - 191
UNEMPLOYMENT STATUS BY COUNTY, BY SEX, RACE, & AGE. . . 192-197
INDEX OF GRAPHS
Section A Graphs:
A- I U.S. UNEMPLOYMENT RATES BY SEX SELECTED YRS 1950-1983 . . 22
A- 1 1 EMPLOYMENT BY CLASS OF WORKER, BY SEX, BY RACE 45
A-III MT FEMALE STATE GOVERNMENT WORKERS BY OCCUPATIONAL
CATEGORY, AS PERCENT OF TOTAL IN CATEGORY, 1975 & 1983. . 46
A- IV U.S. FEMALE APPRENTICES AS A PERCENT OF TOTAL 47
A-V MT VS. U.S. SOLE PROPRIETORSHIPS BY SEX 52
A- VI REASONS FARM WOMEN ALSO EMPLOYED OFF THE FARM 58
Section C Graphs:
C-I PERCENT OF EARNED COLLEGE DEGREES RECEIVED BY WOMEN FOR
SELECTED YEARS OF 1962, 1972, & 1982 118
XI
DEFINITIONS
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS ( BLS ) : Established in 1884 and now part
of the U.S. Department of Labor, this federal agency functions as
the principal data - gathering agency in the field of labor
economics. BLS collects, processes, analyzes, and disseminates
data relating to employment, unemployment, the labor force,
productivity, prices, family expenditures, wages, industrial
relations, and occupational safety and health.
CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE (CLF): The sum of all employed and unemployed
persons 15 years of age or older in the noninstitutional population
but not in the Armed Forces.
CURRENT POPULATION SURVEY (CPS): A monthly household survey of
sample households of the civilian noninstitutional population of the
United States conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the BLS. The
survey gathers monthly statistics on employment, unemployment,
demographic data, and related subjects which are analyzed and
published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. There are approximately
60,000 households assigned nationally, and 815 assigned in Montana at
the current time.
DISCOURAGED WORKERS: People who are not in the labor force because
they believe suitable jobs are not available. These people are not
included in unemployment estimates.
EMPLOYED: In the Current Population Survey, those individuals, 16 years
of age or older, who worked at least one hour for pay or profit or
worked at least 15 unpaid hours in a family business during the
reference week--the '.veek that includes the 12th day of the month.
Individuals are also counted as employed if they had a job but did
not work because they were: ill, on vacation, in a labor dispute,
prevented from working because of bad weather, or taking time off for
personal reasons.
ESTABLISHMENT DATA: Labor market data collected from employing
establishments (e.g. payroll, wages, accessions, and separations).
FAMILY iiPE: Families are classified by type according to sex of the
householder and the presence of relatives, based on questions on sex
and relationship asked on a complete-count basis.
FARM: In determining the number of farms, survey questionaires were
mailed to all individuals, businesses, and organizations which
could be readily identified as being associated with agriculture.
These were drawn from the 1974 Census of Agriculture listings, based
on Department of Agriculture and Internal Revenue Service sources.
FIRST PROFESSIONAL DEGREES: Signifies both (a) completion of
academic requirements and (b) a level of skill beyond normal
requirement for a bachelor's degree, usually at least 2 years of
higher education befor entering the program and a final total of
at least 6 years. Examples: dentistry, veterinary medicine, law.
FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT: 35 hours or more a week paid employment.
Xll
Definitions, cont.
HIGHER EDUCATION GENERAL INFORMATION SURVEY (HEGIS): Annual Survey of
fall enrollment, tuition, and finances of all two and four year
public and private colleges and universities.
HOUSEHOLDER, TYPE OF: A household is classified by type according
to sex of the householder and the presence of relatives based on
questions asked on sex and relationship. This item was determined
on a complete count basis.
MEAN INCOME: The value obtained by dividing the total or aggregate
income of a population by the number of units in that population.
MEDIAN INCOME: A measure of central tendency derived by ranking each
value and choosing the middle value in the series.
OPERATOR: As used in this publication, an operator is a person who
operates a farm, either doing the work or making day-to-day decisions
about such things as planting, harvesting, marketing, etc.
The operator may be the owner, a member of the owner's household,
a salaried manager, a tenant, a rentor, or a sharecropper.
For farm operations where both husband and wife participated,
the designation was determined by the parties involved.
PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT: Less than 35 hours a week paid employment.
PARTICIPATION RATE: The labor force particiption rate is the
number of persons in the labor force expressed as a percentage
of all noninstitutionalized persons at least 16 years of age.
POVERTY LEVEL: Families and unrelated individuals are classified as
above or below the poverty level by comparing their total income to
an income cutoff or "poverty threshold." The income cutoffs vary
by family size, number of children, and age of the family house-
holder or unrelated individual. Poverty status is determined for
all families and ail family members. Poverty status is also
determined for persons not in families, except for inmates of
institutions, members of the Armed Forces living in barracks,
college students living in dormitories, and unrelated individuals
under 15 years old. The poverty status of a person who is a
family member is determined by the family income and its relation-
ship to the appropriate poverty threshold for that family. The
poverty thresholds are updated every year to reflect changes in the
Consumer Price Index.
The term "poverty" connotes a complex set of economic, social, and
psychological conditions. The standard statistical definition
provides only estimates of economic poverty based on the receipt
of money income before taxes. Excluded from the income concept
is a measure of the benefits derived from the receipt of in-kind
government transfers, such as food stamps, Medicaid, and public
housing; private transfers such as health insurance premiums paid
by employers; the value of the services obtained from the ownership
of assets; and the receipt ofmoney from the sale of property, with-
drawal of bank deposits, gifts and money borrowed.
Xlll
Definitions, cont.
RESIDENCE DATA: A count of people by where people live. The usual
place of residence 5 years before the census (i.e., on April 1,
1975), was asked on a sample basis of persons 5 years old or over.
If residence was not in "this house" the location was recorded in
terms of State, county, and city, or foreign country. College
students or military personnel were to report the actual residence
rather than the legal residence, if different. Residence in 1975
is used in conjunction with residence in 1980 to determine the
residential mobility of the population.
SELF-EMPLOYED: Persons who work for profit or fees in their own
unincorporated business, profession, or trade, or who operate
a farm.
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP: One owner; one person having legal right and
exclusive title to a business.
UNEMPLOYED: In the Current Population Survey, those individuals, 15
years of age or older, who do not have a job but are available for
work and actively seeking work during the reference week (the week
including the 12th day of the month) . The only exceptions to these
criteria are individuals who are waiting to be recalled from a new
job within 30 days -- these, too, are considered unemployed.
UNEMPLOYMENT RATE: The number of unemployed expressed as a percent
of the civilian labor force.
WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES: A never-married, divorced, widowed, or
separated woman with no husband present and who is responsible for
her family and its income.
WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESSES: For federal procurement purposes, this is a
small business at least 51 percent owned, controlled, and managed
by a woman or women who are United States citizens. These women
must exercise the authority to make policy decisions and be actively
involved in day-to-day management of the business. This term is
synonomous with female-operated business.
XIV
(STII®M A
LABOR FORCE
CHARACTERISTICS
LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION
Women are an active and vital component of this country's work
force. Their numbers have grown from 4.0 million in 1890 to a 1983
total of 48.5 million. While the male labor force increased approx-
imately 43 percent between 1947 and 1980, the number of female
workers grew by 173 percent.
Although World War II had drawn a great number of women into the
labor market, many, particularly younger white females, returned to
full-time home and family duties at the end of the war. While the
overall increase in the participation rate for the 1950' s was 3.9%,
the greatest change occurred in women over 45. The participation
rate for 45 to 54 year-olds grew by 11.8 percent with a 10.2 percent
change for 55 to 64 year-olds.
The age representation of the female labor market influx in the
1960's and 1970' s reversed this trend. In the 1960's, women 20 to 24
showed the largest increase, followed by the 25 to 34 year-olds. Par-
ticipation for all women under 45 expanded substantially during the
1970' s, with the rise of the 25 to 34 year-old group being more than
twice the overall increase. Therefore, the most rapid expansion in fe-
male employment has occurred among mothers of young children who
were formerly the least likely to seek employment. (See TABLE A-2 for
participation rates by family relationship.)
TABLE A-3 gives a 1983 picture of the civilian labor force by sex,
age, and race. The participation rate for young people (15-24 yrs.) and
older workers (55 yrs. and over) is lower than that of prime age workers
of both sexes. The differences botween young and prime age workers is
more extreme for males than females (a 21.3% difference for males and
5.2% for females). Participation rates for blacks are generally lower
than those for whites with the exception of women ages 25 to 54 and
those 55 and over.
Montana women appear to have mirrored the national pattern. The
1950* Censvis reports a female labor force participation rate of 25.2
percent, and 32.6 percent in 1960*. A 1970 to 1980 comparison shows a
growth from 38.6 percent to 49.0 percent. Current Population Survey
(CPS)** liousehold data set the 1983 civilian labor force participation
rates as 79.0 percent for males and 53.9 percent for females.
Participation rates for married women in Montana changed dramatic-
ally during the 1970 to 1980 time period. Census figures indicate a
jump from 37.7 percent to 49.0 percent for married women, from 28.5
to 42.5 percent for those with children under six, and from 45.7 to
60.3 percent for married mothers of children aged 6 to 17. (See
TABLE A-4 for Montana civilian labor force status by type of
householder and race.)
* Note: 1950 and 1960 Census figures are based on the number of females
age 14 and over, rather than the 16 and over division used later.
** CPS data are based on monthly household samples and are not strictly
comparable to Census information.
LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION, cont.
Participation rates in 1983 for females by CPS marital status
breakdown is as follows:
Single, never married 55.9%
Married, spouse present 52.0%
Other Status (includ. divorced, 49.5%
widowed, separated, and married
with spouse absent)
Changes in male labor force participation have been less dramatic
and opposite in direction. Because young men delayed entry and older
men began to retire earlier, their national participation rate dropped
from 83.6 percent in 1950 to 77.4 percent in 1980. During the last ten
years male civilian labor force participation has hovered between 75 and
77 percent, reflecting fluxuations in the nation's economy rather than
demographic or social changes.
Women are an important element of the work world, and conversely,
employment is an undeniable factor in each woman's life. It is estimat-
ed that only one out of ten women will NEVER work outside the home. To-
day's young v/oman is likely to spend 30 or more years in the paid work
force. A married woman with no children will work an estimated 35
years. A mother can expect to spend 22 years in a paid job if she has
2 children, and 17 years with 4 children or more.
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TABLE A-2
UNITED STATES
CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE (CLE) BY SEX, AGE, AND RACE, 1983
(# in thousands)
SEX, AGE, RACE
CIVILIAN
1
civilia:
N LABOR FC
)RCE
NON-INST.
1 TOTAL
% OF
EMPLOYED
UNEMPLOYED
POPULATION
1 CLE
NON-INST.
POPULATION
#
%
TOTAL
174,215
111,550
64.0%
100,834
10,717
9.6%
16-24 YRS.
36,073
24,223
67 . 1%
20,064
4,159
17.2%
25-54 YRS.
90,246
72,295
80.1%
66,528
5,768
8.0%
55 YRS. AND
OVER
47,895
15,032
31.4%
14,242
791
5.3%
MEN
82,531
63,047
76.4%
56,787
6,260
9.9%
16-24 YRS.
17,799
12,904
72.5%
10,532
2,372
18.4%
25-54 YRS.
43,899
41, 182
93.8%
37,799
3,382
8.2%
55 YRS. AND
OVER
20,834
8,961
43 . 0%
8,456
506
5.5%
WOMEN
91,684
48,503
52.9%
44,047
4,457
9 . 2%
16-24 YRS.
18,276
11,319
61.9%
9,533
1,786
15.8%
24-54 YRS.
46,347
31, 113
67 . 1%
28,729
2,384
7.7%
55 YRS. AND
OVER
27,061
6,071
22.4%
5,786
285
4.7%
WHITE
MEN
71,922
55,480
77.
. 1%
50,621
4,
,859
8.
.8%
16-24 YRS.
14,937
11, 170
74.
.8%
9,389
1.
,780
15.
•9%
25-54 YRS.
38,221
36,173
94.
.6%
33,511
2,
,662
7.
.4%
55 YRS. AND OVER
18,764
8,137
43.
.4%
7,721
416
5.
. 1%
WOMEN
78,884
41,541
52,
.7%
38,272
3,
,270
7.
.9%
16-24 YRS.
15,177
9,832
64.
.8%
8,547
1,
,285
13.
.1%
25-54 YRS.
39,443
26,349
66.
.8%
24,599
1,
,750
6.
•6%
5 5 YRS. AND OVER
24,265
5,3 59
22,
.1%
5, 125
234
4,
•4%
BLACK
MEN
8,447
5,966
70.
.6%
4,
,753
1,213
20.
.3%
16-24 YRS.
2,341
1,430
61.
■ 1%
906
524
36.
.4%
25-54 YRS.
4,401
3,882
88.
.2%
3,
,266
616
15.
.9%
55 YRS. AND OVER
1,704
655
38.
.4%
582
73
11.
.1%
WOMEN
10,477
5,681
54.
.2%
4,
,622
1,059
18.
.6%
16-24 YRS.
2,618
1,249
47.
.8%
790
459
36.
.7%
25-54 YRS.
5,465
3,829
70.
.1%
3
,273
557
14.
.5%
55 YRS. AND OVER
2,395
601
25.
.1%
559
33
7.
.2%
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Employ-
ment and Earnings", Household data, annual averages, Jan. 1984.
TABLE A- 3
UNITED STATES
EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF THE CIVILIAN NON INSTITUTIONAL POPULATION
BY FAMILY RELATIONSHIP, 1983
(# in thousands)
CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE (CLE)
% OF *
TOTAL NONINST. EMPLOYED UNEMPLOYED NOT IN
CLE POPULATION # % LABOR FORCE
FAMILY RELATIONSHIP
TOTAL, 16 & OVER
HUSBANDS
WITH EMPL. WIFE
WITH UNEMPL. WIFE
WITH WIFE NOT IN
LABOR FORCE 15,706 66.0% 14,790 916 5.8% 8,082
111,
,550
64,
■0%
100,
,834
10,
,717
9,
.6%
62,665
39,
,532
79,
.4%
37,
,040
2,
,492
6,
.3%
10,241
22,
, 191
91,
.6%
20,
,916
1,
,275
5,
.7%
2,023
1,
,635
92
•3%
1-
,334
301
18,
•4%
136
WIVES
25,
,984
52.
.2%
24,
,213
1,771
6,
■8%
23,
,788
WITH EMP. HUSBAND
22,
,250
60.
.1%
20,
,916
1,334
6,
•0%
14,
,790
WITH UNEMP . HUSBAND
1,
,576
63,
.2%
1,
,275
301
19,
.1%
916
WITH HUSBAND NOT IN
LABOR FORCE
2,
, 158
21,
. 1%
2,
,023
136
6
•3%
8,
,082
WOMEN WHO MAINTAIN
FAMILIES
5,
,796
59,
CO/
5,
,090
706
12,
■2%
3,
,945
MEN V;H0 MAINTAIN
FAMILIES
1,
,884
75,
■7%
1,
,690
194
10,
•3%
604
PERSONS LIVING ALONE
10,
,425
53,
■2%
9,
,679
746
7,
■2%
9,
, 174
MEN
5,
,534
72,
•1%
5,
,030
505
9
■1%
2,
,144
WOMEN
4,
,891
41
.0%
4,
,650
241
4
•9%
7,
,030
* See TABLE A-2 for total civilian noninstitional population.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
"Employment and Earnings", Household data annual averages,
January 1984.
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TABLE A- 6
UNITED STATES
REASON NOT IN LABOR FORCE BY SEX, AGE, AND RACE, 1983
(# in thousands)
REASON NOT IN LABOR FORCE
TOTAL
SEX, AGE, RACE
NOT IN
KEEPING
ATTENDING
UNABLE
OTHER
LABOR FORCE
HOUSE
SCHOOL
TO WORK
REASONS
TOTAL
16-24 YRS.
11,851
2,584
7,072
84
2, 111
25-54 YRS.
17,951
13,428
945
805
2,772
55 YRS. AND
OVER
32,863
16,046
34
1625
15,157
MEN
16-24 YRS.
4,895
45
3,646
51
1,155
25-54 YRS.
2,717
117
436
566
1,597
55 YRS. AND
OVER
11,873
255
9
862
10,746
WOMEN
16-24 YRS.
6,956
2,539
3,428
33
957
25-54 YRS.
15,234
13,311
509
239
1,175
55 YRS. AND
OVER
20,991
15,792
26
763
4,411
WHITE
HEN
16-24 YRS.
3,767
33
2,853
38
844
25-54 YRS.
2,047
85
304
445
1,213
55 YRS AND OVER
10,626
214
8
696
9,708
WOMEN
16-24 YRS.
5,344
1,991
2,618
24
713
25-54 YRS.
13,092
11,573
394
177
949
5 5 YRS. AND OVER
18,905
14,372
22
614
3,898
BLACK
MEN
16-24 YRS.
912
11
619
11
272
25-54 YRS.
520
29
54
108
330
55 YRS. AND OVER
1,050
35
1
149
864
WOMEN
16-24 YRS.
1,367
471
670
9
216
25-54 YRS.
1,635
1,
,312
71
57
196
55 YRS. AND OVER
1,794
1,
,213
3
138
439
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
"Employment and Earnings", January 1984
10
TABLE A- 7
MONTANA
REASON NOT IN LABOR FORCE BY SEX, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS, 1983
(# in thousands)
BOTH SEXES
AGE 16-24 YRS.
25-54 YRS.
55-65 YRS.
65 YRS. & OVER
FEMALES
AGE 16-24 YRS.
25-54 YRS.
55-65 YRS.
65 YRS. & OVER
REASON NOT IN LABOR FORCE
TOTAL
NOT IN
LABOR FORCE
39.7
61.4
28.4
71.1
25.9
52.4
19.6
41.3
EP]
0U5
[NG
IE
ATTENDING
SCHOOL
UNABLE
TO WORK
0TB
iE
10
7
22.9
0
6
1
46
3
2.5
1.4
11
2
15
6
0
1.6
11
2
30
0
0.1
1.2
39
8
10
7
11.7
0
3
6
46
2
1.2
0.2
4
8
15
4
0
0.4
3
8
29
8
0
0.4
11
1
MARITAL STATUS
BOTH SEXES
MARRIED, SPOUSE PRESENT
SINGLE, NEVER MARRIED
*OTHER MARITAL STATUS
HEAD WITH OTHER RELATIVES
FEMALES
MARRIED, SPOUSE PRESENT
SINGLE, NEVER MARRIED
OTHER MARITAL STATUS
HEAD WITH OTHER RELATIVES
26.7
79.7
2.2
2.7
42.2
35.1
2.9
22.5
0.2
9.5
39.0
20.1
0.8
1.2
16.8
42.9
5.4
1.3
2.4
33.8
91.4
79.4
0.9
0.5
10.5
17.7
2.9
11.3
0.1
3.5
30.2
19.9
0.6
0.4
9.3
6.9
5.0
0.3
0.1
1.5
•■ uTHER MARITAL STATUS includes divorced, widowed, separated, and
married with spouse absent.
Source: U . S . Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current
Population Survey, Household data, annual averages, 1983.
11
FULL-TIME AND PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT*
A large percentage of part-time "-f -^-^^^rpJrcenrofLrar
iod 1963-83, women constituted ^^^ween 72^9 and ^5^3 perc ^^^_
part-time workers age 20 and over ^^-^^f^f^.^^t^xme Employees have
ing that same time period women s ^^nks as ^^|J g ^^^^^ to 39.2
gradually grown from 29.6 percent of total full
^''"Soth the full-time and part-time percentages are 1°^--^^ ^ "°;;^j;j!
than for the country as a whole. Montana 1980 Census figures for work
ers age 16 and over are:
1980
PART-TIME WORKERS
total female %
77,165 49,219 63.8%
FULL-TIME WORKERS
total female %
243,182 82,182 33.8%
relatively small, the great majority of employed women are full-time
employees.
UNITED STATES (CPS data, # in thousands)
1965
1970
1975
1980
1983
Employed
Men
43,422
45,582
48,018
53,102
58,744
% Working
Full-time
96.5%
95.3%
9 5.1%
94.9%
94.7%
Employed
Women
22, 632
26,952
30,726
38,492
44,636
% Working
Full-time
80.7%
78.5%
78.6%
79.5%
80.3%
MONTANA (Census;
Men at
Work
% Working
Full- time
1980 188,946 85.2%
1980 Families with female head,
no husband present
Women at
Work
131,401
14,295
% V^orking
Full-time
62.5%
78.6%
The information on TABLE A-9 provides additional comparisons of
differences in the percentage of working women employed full time by
m;,rital status** Divorced women, over half of whom had children u^aer
aae 18 Sa5 tL highest percentage of full-time workers. The category
wfth?he smallest ?ropor?ion working full-time were never married women
:id widows wthout^h?ldren under 18. These two -^-^--/-J^ f ^^
more part-time workers because of age, with '^^^^^-"^^^"^f ^J^.'^^^y ^° d
Se ve?y young and widows more apt to be older workers. ""^^^^J^mZl
wLen! over 60% were married and 56% had a husband present^ Marred
women with children worked full-time noticeably less than those wirn
no children under age 18. Divorced women and those married with an
absent hS^SanS^orJid full-time in nearly equal percentages whether
or not they had children.
12
FULL-TIME AND PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT, cont.
The reasons women are employed part-time more often than men can-
not be easily identified and charted. TABLES A-10 and A-11 show the sex
breakdown of part-time workers by age and reason on state and national
levels. Montana and U.S. data yield a nearly identical profile for the
youngest and oldest workers of both genders. A majority of 16-19 year-
olds and those age 20-24, who are usually still pursuing an education,
chose part-time employment on a voluntary basis. Ninety percent of male
and female part-time workers age 55 and over did not want full-time em-
ployment .
The finer detail regarding age given by the U.S. table highlights
the reason differences exist between the sexes. Among 25-64 year-olds,
36.7 percent of males worked part-time voluntarily rather than for
economic reasons, compared to 72.7 percent of females in that age group.
Montana comparisons of men and women ages 15 and over with those 20
and over demonstrate a similar disparity.
The broad categories used to denote reason for part-time employment
may give a somewhat false impression. The Bureau of Labor Statistics
defines the term voluntary simply as those who choose to work part-time
without being forced to because of outside economic conditions, such as
slack work or the inability to find full-time work. The category
labeled "Does Not Want Full-time" includes those who do not want or are
unavailable for full-time work. There are obvious reasons other than
current economic conditions for more women than men to be unavailable
for full-time jobs, the chief of which is home and family responsi-
bility. As seen by TABLE A-9, 53.3 percent of married women and
49.5 percent of divorced and separated women in the work force have
children under the age of 18.
It is important to recognize that the choice of a part-time posi-
tion over a full-time one does not mean that the income earned is extra
money. The assumption has been made, especially when the woman is a
second-earner in the family, that lier salary is used for unnecessary
extras rather than essentials. A 1980 analysis done by National Bureau
of Economic Researcli economists places the aftertax income of two-earner
families as 20 to 25 percent more than that of single-earner families
in 1972-73.(1) Some of this "extra income" is used for additional em-
ployment expenses of the second-earner, such as transportaion. For the
two-earner family with children a considerable portion will be spent on
child-care services. Often, the net amount added by the woman's income
may be the difference needed to raise the family's income above the
poverty level. In a state like Montana, where many husbands are
employed seasonally, the second-earner's income is particularly
important.
*Note: Part-time employees are defined as those working 1 to 34 hours
per week. Full-time employment involves 35 or more weekly hours.
**Note: Because this table deals only with March figures, the numbers
do not equal the 1979 annual averges from TABLE A-8.
13
TABLE A-8
UNITED STATES
FULL- AND PART-TIME STATUS OF EMPLOYED PERSONS BY SEX,
(Persons age 20 and over, # in thousands)
ANNUAL AVERAGES, 1963-1983
PART-TIME WORKERS
FULL-TIME WORKERS
Year
Total
Females
% Female
Total
Female
% Female
1963
5,648
4, 145
73.4%
57,859
17,111
29.6%
1964
5,831
4,261
73.1%
58,959
17,643
29.9%
1965
5,902
4,372
74.1%
60,152
18,260
30.4%
1966
6,160
4,599
74.7%
61,014
18,908
31.0%
1967
6,695
4,944
73.9%
61,996
19,453
31.4%
1968
7, 131
5,268
73.9%
63,010
20,013
31.8%
1969
7,526
5,524
73.4%
64,259
20,873
32.5%
1970
7,925
5,803
73.2%
64,609
21, 149
32.7%
1971
8,055
5,876
72.9%
65, 103
21,370
32.8%
1972
8,380
6, 110
72.9%
67,028
22,168
33.1%
1973
8,693
6,383
73.4%
69, 101
23, 101
33.4%
1974
8,888
6,551
73.7%
70,457
23,873
33.9%
1975
8,956
6,578
73.5%
69,788
24,148
34.6%
1976
9,270
6,884
74.3%
72,146
25,342
35.1%
1977
9, 700
7,162
73.8%
74,630
26,614
35.7%
1978
10,071
7,485
74.3%
77,907
28,350
36.4%
1979
10,345
7,746
74.9%
80,396
29,688
36.9%
1980
10,601
7,904
74.6%
80,993
30,588
37.8%
1981
10,773
8, 108
75.3%
82,399
31,481
38.2%
1982
11,805
8,777
74.4%
89,874
34,921
38.9%
1983
11,890
8,782
73.9%
91,490
35,854
39.2%
Source: 1963-1981 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
"Labor Force Statistics Derived From tlie Current Population Survey: A
Databook, Vol.1, September 1982.
"'032,1983 "Employment and Earnings" January 1983,1984.
14
TABLE A- 9
UNITED STATES
EMPLOYED WOMEN BY FULL- OR PART-TIME STATUS, MARITAL STATUS, AND
PRESENCE OF OWN CHILDREN
["lARCH 1979
(# in thousands)
TOTAL
#
%
NO CHILDREN
UNDER 18
# %
WITH CHILDREN
UNDER 18
# %
TOTAL EMPLOYED WOMEN 40,150 100.0%
Worked full-time 28,805 71.7%
Worked part-time 11,346 28.3%
24,741 100.0%
17,994 72.7%
6,746 27.3%
15,409 100.0%
10,810 70.2%
4,599 29.8%
NEVER MARRIED, TOTAL 9,940
Worked full-time 6,562
Worked part-time 3,379
MARRIED, HUSBAND PRESENT,
TOTAL 22,620
Worked full-time 16,066
Worked part-time 6,555
100.0% 9,549 100.0%
66.0% 6,252 65.5%
34.0% 3,297 34.5%
100.0% 10,564 100.0%
71.0% 8,070 76.4%
29.0% 2,494 23.6%
391
100
0%
309
79
0%
82
21
0%
12
056
100
0%
7
995
66
3%
4
061
33
7%
MARRIED, HUSBAND ABSENT,
TOTAL 1,631 100.0%
Worked full-time 1,361 83.5%
Worked part-time 270 16.5%
757 100.0%
638 84.3%
119 15.7%
875 100.0%
723 82.7%
151 17.3%
DIVORCED, TOTAL
Worked full-time
Worked part-time
3,
3,
723
292
432
100.0%
88.4%
11.6%
1,949 100.0%
1,734 89.0%
214 11.0%
1,775 100.0%
1,557 87.7%
217 12.3%
WIDOWED, TOTAL
Worked full-time
Worked part-time
2,
1,
235
525
710
100.0%
68.2%
31.8%
1,922 100.0%
1,299 67.6%
623 32.4%
313 100.0%
225 71.9%
88 28.1%
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Perspec-
tives on Working Women: A Databook" , October 1980
15
TABLE A- 10
MONTANA
FULL- OR PART-TIME STATUS OF CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE
BY REASON FOR PART-TIME, SEX AND AGE, 1983
(# in thousands)
USUALLY WORK PART-TIME
*DOES
FULL-TIME
SLACK WORK NOT FITLL-TIME
ABOR FORCE
OR ONLY WANT WORK
TOTAL
TOTAL FIND PT FULL-TIME <35 HRS. OTHER
MALE
AGE 16 AND OVER
AGE 16-19 YRS.
AGE 20 AND OVER
213.4
21.9
7.0
12.0
0.8
2.1
7.2
7.5
1.8
5.4
0
o.z
206.2
14.4
5.2
6.6
0.8
1.8
FEMALE
AGE 16 AND OVER
AGE 16-19 YRS.
AGE 20 AND OVER
117.6
49.6
11.6
31.9
2.3
3.7
7.0
7.0
1.9
4.7
0.2
0.1
110.6
42.6
9.6
27.2
2.1
3.6
* Does not want, or unavailable for, full-time work.
Source: U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current
Population Survey, Household Data, annual averages, 1983.
16
TABLE A- 11
UNITED STATES
PERSONS AT WORK IN NONAGR I CULTURAL INDUSTRIES
BY FULL-TIME OR PART-TIME STATUS
BY SEX AND AGE, 1983
(# in thousands)
Sex, Age
MEN
16 & over
16-19 yrs.
20-24 yrs,
25-44 yrs.
45-64 yrs.
65 & over
WOMEN
16 & over
16-19 yrs.
20-24 yrs.
25-44 yrs,
45-64 yrs.
65 & over
Part-
-time
Total at
for
economic
Voluntary(2
) Tota
work
reasons( 1 )
part-time
full-t
51,396
2
758
3,690
44,948
2,932
437
1,361
1,134
6,645
617
781
5,247
26,338
1
136
561
24,641
14,094
508
394
13, 192
1,387
59
593
735
40,642
3
240
8,727
28,675
2,885
456
1,533
896
6, 128
664
1, 148
4,316
20,338
1
,386
3,485
15,467
10,269
675
2,000
7,594
1,022
50
561
402
(l)ECONOMIC REASONS: is defined as slack work, material shortages,
repairs to plant or equipment, start or termination of job during week,
or inability to find full-time work.
( 2 ) VOLUNTARY : is defined as part-time by choice for other than economic
reasons .
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
"Employment and Earning3", Household data, annual averages, Jan. 1984,
17
JOB SHARING/ FLEXTIME
Reduction of work/family role conflicts which exist for women try-
ing to maintain a job or career and still fulfill their housewife/mother
role, is an issue which cannot be ignored by employers or by women,
themselves. A woman may try to reduce this stress by lowering her stan-
dards for her housework or by cutting down her social life. All too of-
ten she doubles her efforts to be more organized and efficient, trying
to be "superwoman" . (2) This choice can create impossible standards and
result in a feeling of failure. Remaining single or childless are also
options being considered and chosen by more women pursuing careers. As
shown earlier, however, a large portion of the female wor): force is al-
ready married and raising children. For some of these women an answer
to their dual role responsibilities is an alternative work schedule.
Schedule flexibility can be extremely important to the working
woman who is raising a family. As women continue to exert an influence
on the shape of the work world, alternatives to traditional v/ork sched-
ules are being initiated to fulfill this need. Flextime and job sharing
are two options which, though used by both sexes, can be especially
beneficial to women.
A flextime schedule typically requires an employee to be present
during certain core hours, such as 9:00 A.M. to 3:00 P.M., and allov/s
the employee to come in earlier or leave later than the normal work day
allows. Sometimes this choice is flexible; sometimes it must be made
in advance and changed only with permission and advance notice.
Flextime scheduling began in the late 1950 's in Germany. (3) American
corporations began to experiment with it in the early 1970' s.
It is found, at present, primarily in service companies such as
banks and insurance companies which seem to be well-suited to this
arrangement. Some of the benefits are a boost in employee morale,
reduction of tardiness, more even distribution of work load
(especially computer usage), and less absenteeism caused by child-
care problems or dental appointments. Each of these benefits seems to
contribute to an increase in job satisfaction.
Job sharing is another worktime alternative that many women see as
preferable to a traditional workweek. Like flextime, job sharing is not
used only by women, but is an option that seems to be particularly at-
tractive to women.
There are nearly as many divergent job sharing arrangements as
there are shared positions. Some workers choose to work mornings while
their partners take the afternoon shift. Some alternate days, weeks, or
months. The partners may be husband and wife, retirees, young mothers,
or any workable combination of people.
Most shared positions come into being through the initiative of two
people who desire such an arrangement. Employers who do institute job
sharing programs list the following reasons (4):
-- greater flexibility in work scheduling,
-- retention of valued employees,
-- wider range of skills in one job title,
-- recruitment from a broader labor pool,
-- new options for older employees,
-- more energy on the job,
-- reduction of absenteeism, and
-- continuity of job performance.
18
UNEMPLOYMENT RATES
A look at national unemployment rates for men and women from 1950-
1983, indicates that female unemployment rates are traditionally higher
than those for males. (TABLE A-13) From 1950 through 1980 the average
difference between rates for the sexes was 1.3 percent. Women's rates
ranged from 2.1 percent higher (1967,1973), to a .02 percent difference
in 1980, and were equal only in one year-1958. A study which focused
on a sex and age breakdown for unemployed and discouraged workers
shows even higher differences when all discouraged workers are consid-
ered. (TABLE D-4)
It is thought that one reason that female unemployment figures have
remained above male rates is that women tended not to be consistent
workers because of their frequent movement in and out of the work force
for child-rearing purposes. This gives the female unemployed labor force
a slightly different character than that of males, as more out-of-work
women than men are new entrants to the labor force or reentering after a
time at home.
Persons with less job tenure are likely to be laid off first, so
that, in many cases, women are hit harder by economic downturns. As a
recession continues, the number of layoffs of men equals and then
surpasses those of women. This is evidenced in the unemployment rate
reversal for 1982 and 1983, in which male rates eventually -^^'ceeded
those for females.
Because Montana sex specific unemployment rates are not available
for every year, it is difficult to ascertain a trend. Montana rates
from the Current Population Survey are as follows:
MONTANA (CPS) UNEMPLOYED AS % OF LABOR FORCE
1976
1980
1982
1983
of the labor force were:
Overall Female Male
1970 8.3% 6.8% 5.8%
1980 6.2% 6.9% 5.6%
CPS data show a large rise in the male unemployment rate not
seen in Censes figures. Because of differences in methodology and
definitions the two sets of figures must be considered separately. The
high male unemployment shown by the CPS is a reflection of large
layoffs in the male-dominated industries of construction, manufacturing,
and mining.
A racial comparison of U.S. unemployment rates shows blacks experi-
encing rates more than twice those for whites. (TABLE A-3) The 1980
Montana Census indicates a large difference between unemployment rates
for the American Indian population and the general state rates. The
overall American Indian unemployment rate is shown as 20.3 percent, with
the female rate being 15.9 percent. According to some sources, this
figure is much too low, especially when looking specifically at unem-
ployment on reservations.
overall
female male
6.1%
7.6% 5.2%
6.0%
6.5% 5.6%
8.6%
7.4% 9.4%
8.8%
8.5% 9.1%
sus figures.
the unemployed as a percent
19
UNEMPLOYMENT RATES, cont.
For 1983, when state male unemployment rates were higher than
those for women, men also remained unemployed for a slightly longer
period of time.
TABLE A- 12
MONTANA
UNEMPLOYED PERSONS BY DURATION OF UNEMPLOYMENT
BY SEX AND AGE, 1983
(# in thousands)
NUMBER UNEMPLOYED BY
TOTAL
NUMBER
OF WEEKS
1
AVERAGE
NUMBER
1 0-4
5-14
15-26
27-
-51
52- i
DURATION
UNEMPLOYED
1
i
IN WKS.
BOTH
SEXES
AGE
16 AND OVER
34.9
12.5
11.8
5.4
2,
.2
2.
.9
14.0
AGE
16-19 YRS.
4.0
2.1
1.2
.5
. 1
.2
6.5
AGE
20 AND OVER
30.8
10.4
10.6
5.0
2.
.1
2,
.7
15.0
MALE
AGE
16 AND OVER
21.1
7.4
7.0
3.1
1,
.4
2.
.1
15.5
AGE
16-19 YRS.
1.9
0.9
0.5
0.3
0,
,1
0,
.1
8.5
■-"
20 AND OVER
19.2
6.5
6.5
2.9
1.
2,
.0
16.2
FEMALE
AGE
16 AND OVER
13.8
5.2
4.8
2.3
0,
.8
0.
.7
11.7
AGE
16-19 YRS.
2. 1
1.2
0.7
0.2
0
0
4.7
AGE
20 AND OVER
11.7
4.0
4- 1
2. 1
0,
.8
0,
.7
13.0
Source: U. S .Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current
Population Survey, Household data, annual averages, 1983.
Two samples of reentrants into the labor force, constructed from
the National Longitudinal Survey for 1972 and involving young women
(ages 20-28) and mature women (ages 35-49), were studied in regard
to the spells of unemployment experienced by labor force reentrants.
Ethel Jones reports that approximately 1 of every 3 women undergoes
a spell of unemployment when reentering the labor force. One half of
the young reentrants and 4 out of 10 of the mature women experienced
some type of unemployment during 1972. (5)
20
TABLE A- 13
UNITED STATES
UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF WOMEN AND MEN
ANNUAL AVERAGES, 1950-1983
Persons 16 yrs. of age and over
# in thousands
YEAR % OF LABOR FORCE
BOTH SEXES WOMEN MEN
1983
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
1955
1954
1953
1952
1951
1950
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
"Handbook of Labor Statistics," 1978, and "Employment and
Earnings," January 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, and 1983.
9.6%
9.2%
9.9%
9.7%
9.4%
9.9%
7.6%
7.9%
7.4%
7.1%
7.9%
7.7%
5.8%
6.8%
5.1%
6.0%
7.2%
5.2%
7.0%
8.2%
6.2%
7.7%
8.6%
7.0%
8.5%
9.3%
7.9%
5.6%
6.7%
4.8%
4.9%
6.0%
4.1%
5.6%
6.6%
4.9%
5.9%
6.9%
5.3%
4.9%
5.9%
4.4%
3.5%
4.7%
2.8%
3.6%
4.8%
2.9%
3.8%
5.2%
3.1%
3.8%
4.8%
3.2%
4.5%
5.5%
4.0%
5.2%
6.2%
4.6%
5.7%
6.5%
5.2%
5.5%
6.2%
5.2%
6.7%
7.2%
6-4%
5.5%
5.9%
5.4%
5.5%
5.9%
5.3%
6.8%
6.S%
5.8%
4.3%
4.7%
4.1%
4.1%
4.8%
3.8%
4.4%
4.9%
4.2%
5.5%
6.0%
5.3%
2.9%
3.3%
2.8%
3.0%
3.6%
2.8%
3.3%
4.4%
2.8%
5.3%
5.7%
5.1%
21
GRftW A-I
U. S. LNEMPLOVrtNT RATES BY SEX PGR SELECTED YEflRS
UNEMPLOYED
1950
1%0
1965
1970
1975
1980
1983
LEGEND
FEMALE
YEAR
MALE
22
JOB SERVICE
Montana has 24 Job Service offices throughout the state. TABLES A-14
& A-15 exhibit information drawn from Job Service data. TABLE A-15 tells
the age, education, and race of female applicants to the Montana Job
Service, and the types of services received. A typical female applicant
would be white, age 22-39 and have a 12th grade education. TABLE A-14
lists job placement of applicants by occupational category. A large
portion of females were placed in jobs involving clerical work, sales,
or service industries.
TABLE A-14
MONTANA
INDIVIDUALS PLACED IN REGULAR JOBS(l)
BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY AND DIVISION
Fiscal Year 1983, ending 9-30-83
OCCUP. CATEGORY & DIVISION
TOTAL
PROF. TECH. MGR.
CLERICAL
SALES
DOMESTIC
OTHER SERVICES
FARM, FISHING, & FORESTRY
PROCESSING
MACHINE TRADES
BENCH WORK
STRUCTURAL
MOTOR FREIGHT TRANSP .
PKG. MTRL. HANDL.
OTHER
TOTAL
% FEMALES
TOTAL
FEMALES
OF TOTAL
25,392
12,
,029
47.4%
1,580
803
50.8%
5, 141
4,
, 132
80.4%
2,033
1,
, 169
57.5%
1, 132
699
61.7%
7,450
4,
,472
60.0%
3,169
523
16.5%
878
441
50.2%
983
93
9.5%
298
136
45.6%
2,318
109
4.7%
884
69
7.8%
1,931
363
18.8%
440
80
18.2%
(1) Job duration of over 3 days.
Source: Montana Employment Service Automated Reporting System
(ESARS), Tables 09 and D09, Sept. 30, 1983.
PROJECT CHALLENGE
Project Challenge, sponsored by the Job Training Partnership Act
and administrated by the AFLCIO, is helping dislocated workers to find
new employment. Trainees are instructed in job market reality and self-
directed placement. Thirty-five to 40 percent of those enrolled in the
program are women. Project Challenge accepts 25 persons per site per
quarter. Sites are located in Billings, Great Falls, Kalispell, Butte/
Anaconda, and Missoula.
23
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24
DISPLACED HOMEMAKERS
One g
homemakers
referring
divorced o
completely
Laurie Shi
Homemakers
and facing
beginning
Homemaker
1980. The
in 1979 pa
income div
roup of female householders has become known as displaced
The term displaced homemaker is generally used when
to a woman who, after years at home as a wife and mother, is
r widowed and must face a job market for which she feels
unprepared. This term was first used by Tish Sommers and
elds in 1975 when they founded the Alliance for Displaced
in Oakland, California (10). Both women were newly divorced
problems in job market re-entry. This alliance was the
of a process that led to the establishment of Displaced
Programs throughout the country. There were nearly 400 in
results of a national survey of Displaced Homemaker Programs
ints a picture of the typical program client as being a low
orcee who is over age 40 and has dependents to support (11).
UNITED STATES
SURVEY OF DISPLACED HOMEMAKER PROGRAMS:
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS, 1979
M.^^RITAL STATUS OF CLIENT DIVORCED
AGE OF CLIENT
INCOME OF CLIENT
DEPENDENTS
YEARS OUT OF WORKFORCE
43%
SEPARATED 21%
WIDOWED 20%
75% OVER AGE 40
75% EARNED LESS THAN $5,000
OVER 50% HAD DEPENDENTS
50% OUT FOR OVER 10 YEARS
Source: Network News, June 1979, Displaced Homemaker Network.
Montana has Displaced Homemaker Programs functioning in eight
locations: Billings, Bozeman, Great Falls, Havre, Helena, Lewistown,
Miles City and Missoula. The programs receive funding from the federal
government under the Job Training Partnership Act, and from state mon-
ies. The state funds come from a $25 fee attached to each of about
5,000 divorces per year.
The purpose of the programs is to lielp provide the job skills and
training needed for a successful entry into the labor market. Job
skills, however, are only a part of meeting the needs of displaced home-
makers. For many women in this situation the biggest obstacle is low
self-esteem. The stress involved in handling a job interview or writ-
ing a resume can be tremendous for a woman who has never worked or who
has been out of the work world for some time, especially at a time when
she is making major social and emotional adjustments. Many women also
need suportive services such as housing or child care, and may require
eye glasses or proper clothing before they can seek employment.
25
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION
In a discussion of women and employment it is important to Look
beyond the number employed, and to examine the nature of the
positions occupied. TABLE A-17 presents an historical look at female-
dominated occupations. Though many of the occupations have remained the
same since 1900, their labor force distribution has changed. For exam-
ple, in both 1900 and 1980, 97 percent of all private household workers
were female. These workers composed 28.7 percent of the total female
labor force in 1900, whereas the 1980 percentage is 2.5. Overall, the
female-dominated occupations listed made up 54.4 percent of the 1900
female labor force and 32.2 percent in 1980.
Changes are slowly being made in the definition of "women's work".
In spite of remarkable gains made in the number of female craft and
kindred workers, such as a 260 percent gain in the number of female
carpenters and 800 percent growth for machinists, women are far from
realizing equitable representation in these occupations. (TABLE A-19).
As of 1980, women are still only 1.6 percent of all carpenters, and 4.9
percent of machinists. TABLES A-18 & A-20 illustrate occupational dis-
tribution changes made from 1970 to 1980. The most notable differences
include substantial increases in the number of women employed as manag-
ers (11.6%), sales supervisors (11.2%), and accountant/auditors (13.6%).
There are obvious decreases in the number of women in the categories of
maids/housemen (-18.5%), cooks (-10%), and elementary teachers (-8.5%).
A study of occupational employment changes for the time period
1972 thru 1980 shows women accounting for 65 percent of the total 15.6
million employment increase. The top four of the 10 occupations with
the largest absolute employment changes were female-dominated.
TABLE A- 16
OCCUPATIONS RANKED BY THE SIZE OF
THEIR ABSOLUTE EMPLOYMENT CHANGES, 1972-1980 (6)
LARGEST INCREASES
Secretaries
Cashiers
Registered Nurses
Cooks
Truckdrivers
Accountants
Engineers
Computer and peripheral
machine operators
Bookkeepers
Computer Specialists
LARGEST DECRE:ASES
Delivery and Route Workers
Cleaners and Servants
Farm owners and tenant farmers
Unpaid family farmworkers
Garage workers and Gas Station
attendants
Sewers and Stitchers
Child-care workers
Textile Operatives
Telephone Operators
Stenographers
26
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION, cont.
Some of the male-dominated jobs whose ranks were enlarged by female
workers were:
-- Two thirds of new accountants were female, raising the female
percentage of the occupation from 21 to 36 percent.
-- The number of women engineers increased by 50,000 and now
make up 15 percent of total engineers.
-- Women doubled their representation as engineering and science
technicians (from 9 to 18 percent), and accounted for 45 percent
of the occupation's 1972-80 growth.
-- One of three additional computer specialists jobholders were
female, causing a percentage change of 9 percent (17% in 1972,
26% in 1980) .
-- From 1972 to 1980 female representation in the practice of law
grew from 4 percent to 13 percent, as 1 out of 4 new lawyers was
a woman.
-- The number of female truckdrivers multiplied by five times during
the time period studied. This made the number of women more than
40,000 though they only constitute 2% of that occupation's workers.
Women also had an effect on the 1972-80 job loser categories, even
though more than one-half of the 30 occupations losing 10,000 or more
workers were blue-collar jobs. Of the five white-collar losers, four
were in the clerical grouping. Virtually all of the employees affected
by the decline in the number of private household workers, child-care
workers, sewers and stitchers, and telephone operators, were women. The
stenographer count dropped to less than one-half its 1972 level, and
is most likely due to the increased use of dictation machines. Most
stenographers were probably reclassified into another clerical group.
An examination of the distribution of employed U.S women from 1960
to 1983 by major occupational group (TABLE A-21) shows a continued
concentration of females as:
-- clerical workers (30.3% in 1960, 29.7% in 1983),
-- professional and technical workers, which includes
nurses and teachers (12.4% in 1960, 17.3% in 1983),
-- sales workers (7.7% in 1960, 12.8% in 1983*),
-- other service workers (14.8% in 1960, 16.8% in 1983).
Note: The large increase in the percentage of sales workers is the
result of a Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) definitional change.
In 1983 supervisors and proprietors were included in the sales work-
er count when they had not been previously. This change is evident
in the distribution percentages for both sexes on both a state and
a national level.
27
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION, cont.
It has been estimated that, with all barriers to "male occupations" re-
moved, 60 percent of currently employed women would have to change jobs
in order to have the same occupational profile as men. There has been
little change in this estimate since 1900. (7)
Occupationally, as in other areas, Montana statistics are similar
to national patterns. Montana women constitute 41.1 percent of employed
persons in all occupations. In the 11 broad categories, the highest
percentage of women is ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT (81.7%), the lowest
is PRECISION PRODUCTION, CRAE'T, AND REPAIR (5.2%). (TABLE A-22)
Occupational distribution of female state government em.ployees is
shown in TABLE A-27. Considerable changes have occurred since the
inception of Montana's Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) program
in 1975. The 1975 to 1983 changes in the percentage of women in each
category are:
Administrators + 5.7%
Professionals + 4.9%
Technicians +17.2%
Protective Services + 2.4%
Paraprofessionals + 5.0%
Clerical + 0.1%
Skilled Craft - 2.0%
Service -12.2%
A Sociological Perspective
There is no simple or agreed-upon explanation for the occupational
profile differences between men and women. Veronica Nieva and Barbara
Gutek, authors of Women and Work, offer four perspectives used in dis-
cussions of this historical inequality. (8) The first view uses what
may be called the "individual deficit model". From this point of view
women are seen as less stable and less rational than men, and fearful of
challenge and success. It explains women's inferior work status posi-
itions in terms of deficits in individual motivation, socialization and
training that discourages assertiveness, and lack of sensitivity to
networks and organizational games. This approach tends to blame the
victim and ignores external influences which could create or perpetuate
perpetuate such characteristics.
The second perspective uses a "structural-institutional model",
which sees women's personalities and motivations as consequences rather
than the causes of work structures. This suggests that low aspirations
are simply adjustments to the reality of work structure opportunities in
a system which keeps women in powerless, dead-end positions.
The "sex-role model" focuses on sex-role prescriptions as providing
occupational direction. Traditionally-female occupations are chosen in
spite of low pay, because they are viewed by society as being appropri-
ate activities for women. The societal-defined female role of nurturer
and supporter may also cause employers to, consciously or unconsciously,
assume limitations on woman's abilities and job interests.
The fourth position is labeled the "intergroup model", and sees
stereotypes as resulting from worker groups formed on the basis of sex
and the subsequent tendency to exaggerate within-group similarities and,
between-group differences. The male group is traditionally characteriz-
ed as motivated, committed, and superior to the female group. Therefore,
group membership is the determination of status. "Women often exhibit
28
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION, cont.
psychological characteristics typical of lower caste members, for exam-
ple, denigration of other members of their own group, accepting the dom-
inant group's definitions of them, and preferring to work and to be
identified with members of the top group. Ironically, they are regarded
by the dominant male group as inferior beings, yet the kinds of barriers
set up against them suggest that their competition is feared greatly."
(8) The subordinate status is maintained by control of resources such
as power, money, land, and legal power.
Each of these four explanations for the work status of women gives
a possible reasoning and is suggestive of different methods of change in
order to reverse the current situation. Regardless of which set of fac-
tors is most influential, the achievement of occupational equity will
only come about through a complete revolution in societal attitudes
toward women in the labor force.
Apprenticeships
A major avenue for female entrance into non-traditional employ-
ment is participation in apprenticeship programs. The 1979 number of
female apprentices in the United States was over six and one-half times
that for 1973. (TABLE A-28) Even with this growth, women constituted
only 4.1 percent of the 1979 total U.S. apprentices.
In Montana we find a 34.2 percent gain in the number of female
apprentices, from 85 in 1977 to 114 in 1984. (TABLE A-29) Also, female
representation has more than doubled, as 10.2 percent of all 1984 ap-
prentices were female, compared with 4.8 percent in 1977.
29
TABLE A- 17
UNITED STATES
FEMALE - DOM I NATED OCCUP AT I ONS :
1900,1950, 1980
Occupation % c
Lat
1900
DRESSMAKERS *
MILLINERS
PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WORKERS
NURSES
ATTENDANTS, hospitals &
other inst . , midwives,
practical nurses
OPERATIVES, paperboard
containers & boxes
CHARWOMEN & CLEANERS
BOARDING &
LODGING HOUSEKEEPERS
LIBRARY ATTENDANTS
TELEPHONE OPERATORS
OPERATIVES, KNITTING MILLS
HOUSEKEEPERS AND STEWARDS,
except private
TEACHERS
LIBRARIANS
STENOGRAPHERS, TYPISTS,
& SECRETARIES
OPERATIVES, misc. fabricated
textile products
OPERATIVES, apparel &
accessories mfg.
TOTAL
1950
Female
Female as % of
r Force
Total in Occup
7.8%
100%
1.4%
100%
28.7%
97%
0.2%
94%
1.8%
89%
0.3%
84%
0.5%
84%
1-1%
83%
**
80%
0.3%
80%
0.6%
78%
0.5%
78%
6.1%
75%
**
72%
1.8%
72%
0.3%
71%
3.0%
70%
54.4%
NURSES 2 . 9%
DRESSMAKERS & SEAMSTRESSES 0.9%
TELEPHONE OPERATORS 2 . 2%
ATTENDANTS, physicians &
dentists offices 0.2%
PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WORKERS 8.9%
STENOGRAPHERS, TYPISTS, &
SECRETARIES 9.5%
MILLINERS 0.1%
LIBRARIANS 0.3%
OFFICE MACHINE OPERATORS 0.8%
SALES WORKERS, DEMONSTRATORS 0.1%
OPERATIVES, mfg. apparel &
accessories 4.0%
BOOKKEEPERS & CASHIERS 4.7%
98%
97%
96%
95%
95%
94%
90%
89%
82%
82%
81%
* This item may be read as follows: In 1900, dressmakers made up
7.8% of the female labor force and 100% of dressmakers were women.
** Percentage below 0.1%.
30
FEMALE-DOMINATED OCCUPATIONS, cont.
% of Female Female as % of
1950, cont. Labor Force Total in Occup.
COUNTER & FOUNTAIN WORKERS,
WAITRESSES 4.0% 78%
HOUSEKEEPERS & STEWARDS
except private 0.5% 78%
TEACHERS 5.2% 75%
IBRARY, attendents 0.1% 74%
SPINNERS, textile 0.4% 74%
OPERATIVES, knitting 0.7% 72%
OPERATIVES, misc.
fabricated textiles 0.2% 72%
BOARDING & LODGINGS
HOUSEKEEPERS 0.1% 72%
DANCERS & DANCE TEACHERS 0.1% 71%
RELIGIOUS WORKERS 0.2% 70%
OPERATIVES, tobacco mfg. 0.3% 70%
TOTAL 46.4%
1980
SECRETARIES
DENTAL ASSISTANTS
PRE-KNDERGARTEN TEACHERS
PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WORKERS
PRACTICAL NURSES
DRESSMAKERS
LODGING QUARTERS CLEANERS
TYPISTS
TELEPHONE OPERATORS
DEMONSTATORS
REGISTERED NURSES
RECEPTIONISTS
CHILD CARE WORKERS
KEYPUNCH OPERATORS
SEWERS & STITCHERS
TEACHER'S AIDES
BANK TELLERS
BOOKKEEPERS
BILLING CLERKS
BOOKKEEPING & BILLING
MACHINE OPERATORS
TOTAL
9.3%
99.1%
0.3%
98.6%
0.6%
98.4%
2.5%
97.5%
0.9%
97.3%
0.3%
97.2%
0.4%
97.0%
2.4%
96.9%
0.7%
96.9%
0.2%
96.7%
3.0%
96.5%
1-5%
96.3%
1.0%
96.1%
0.6%
95.9%
1-8%
95.7%
0.9%
93.7%
1-2%
92.7%
4.2%
90.5%
0.4%
90.2%
0.1%
90.0%
32.2%
Source: Linda Waite, "U.S. Women at VJork" , 1981. p. 25
31
TABLE A- 18
UNITED STATES
THE 25 OCCUPATIONS WITH THE LARGEST NUMBERS OF MEN IN 1980
AND THE % OF WOMEN IN EACH OCCUPATION
DETAILED 1980 OCCUPATIONAL
TITLE
1970
1980
%Change
# MEN
%WOMEN
%WOMEN
'70- '80
MANAGERS , n . e . c . ( 1 )
3,
,824,609
15.3%
26.9%
11.6%
TRUCKDRIVERS, Heavy
1,
,852,443
1-5%
2.3%
0.8%
JANITORS & CLEANERS
1,
,631,534
13.1%
23.4%
10.3%
SUPERVISORS, Production
1,
,605,489
9.9%
15.0%
5.1%
CARPENTERS
1,
,275,666
1.1%
1.6%
0.5%
SUPERVISORS, Sales
1,
,137,045
17.0%
28.2%
11.2%
LABORERS
1,
,128,789
16.5%
19.4%
2.9%
SALES REPRESENTATIVES
1,
,070,206
7.0%
14.9%
7.9%
FARMERS
1,
,032,759
4.7%
9.8%
5.1%
AUTO MECHANICS
948,358
1.4%
1.3%
-0.1%
MACHINE OPERATORS
933,201
35.6%
33.5%
-2.1%
ASSEMBLERS
858,542
45 . 7%
49 . 5%
3.8%
CONSTRUCTION LABORERS
833,937
1-9%
3.2%
1.3%
WELDERS & CUTTERS
744,585
6.2%
5.9%
-0.3%
FARMWORKERS
694,666
14.9%
21.7%
6.8%
SUPERVISORS, n.e.c.
672,477
1-2%
1.8%
0.6%
ACCOUNTANTS, AUDITORS
626,558
24.6%
38.2%
13.6%
ELECTRICIANS
594,781
2.0%
2.0%
0.0%
COOKS
578,320
67.2%
57.2%
-10.0%
TEACHERS, Elem.
569,823
83.9%
75.4%
-8.5%
MANAGERS, Marketing
567,362
7.9%
17.6%
9.7%
STOCKHANDLERS, BAGGERS
560,360
12 . 5%
21.0%
8.5%
TRUCKDRIVERS, Light
512,671
4.7%
6.8%
2.1%
MACHINISTS
500,294
3.0%
4.9%
1.9%
GUARDS, Exclud. Public
499, 152
4.0%
13.5%
9.5%
(1) n.e.c.- not elsewhere
classified
Source: Nancy Rytina and Suzanne Bianchi , "Occupational Reclassification
and Changes in Distribution by Gender", Monthly Labor Review, March 1984
pg.l5
TABLE A- 19
UNITED STATES
1972-1980 FEMALE GAINS AS CRAFT AND KINDRED WORKERS
CARPENTERS
OTHER CONSTR. CRAFTWORKERS
MACHINISTS
HEAVY EQUIP. MECHANICS
TELEPHONE INSTALLERS & REPAIR
1972
1980
% GAIN
5,000
18,000
260%
11,000
50,000
354%
2,000
18,000
800%
5,000
15,000
200%
6,000
27,000
350%
Source: Carol Boyd Leon, "Occupational Winners and Losers: Who They Were
During 1972-80", Monthly Labor Review, June 1982, pg.28.
32
TABLE A-20
UNITED STATES
THE 25 OCCUPATIONS WITH THE LARGEST NUMBER OF WOMEN IN 1980
AND THE % OF WOMEN IN EACH OCCUPATION
DETAILED 1980 OCCUPATIONAL
TITLE
1970
1980
'70- '80
#
WOMEN
% WOMEN
% WOMEN
%CHANGE
SECRETARIES
3,
,949,973
97.8%
98.8%
1.0%
TEACHERS, Elem.
1,
,749,547
83.9%
75.4%
-8.5%
BOOKKEEPERS
1,
,700,843
80.9%
89.7%
8.8%
CASHIERS
1,
,565,502
84.2%
83.5%
-0.7%
OFFICE CLERKS
1,
,425,083
75.3%
82.1%
6.8%
MANAGERS, n.e.c.
1,
,407,898
15.3%
26.9%
11.6%
WAITRESSES
1,
,325,928
90.8%
88.0%
-2.8%
SALESWORKERS
1,
,234,929
70.4%
72.7%
2.3%
REGISTERED NURSES
1,
,232,544
97.3%
95.9%
-1-4%
NURSING AIDES
1,
,209,757
87.0%
87.8%
0.8%
SEWING MACHINES OPERATORS
860,848
94.9%
94.1%
-0.8%
ASSEMBLERS
841, 158
45 . 7%
49.5%
3.8%
COOKS
771,878
67.2%
57.2%
-10.0%
TYPISTS
716,449
94.8%
96.8%
2.0%
CHILD CARE WORKERS
570,794
92.5%
93.2%
0.7%
RECEPTIONISTS
525,290
95.3%
95.8%
0.5%
MAIDS AND HOUSEMEN
510,277
94.3%
75.8%
-18.5%
JANITORS AND CLEANERS
498,623
13.1%
23.4%
10.3%
HAIRDRESSERS
490,785
90.0%
87.8%
-2.2%
TEACHERS, Secondary
486,603
49.6%
56.5%
6.9%
MACHINE OPERATORS
471,011
30.2%
33.5%
3.3%
BANK TELLERS
464, 139
86.9%
91.1%
4.2%
SUPERVISORS, Sales
445,492
17.0%
28.2%
11.2%
PRACTICAL NURSES
420,412
96.1%
96.6%
0.5%
HAND PACKAGERS
415,925
67.0%
66.8%
-0.2%
n.e.c
not elsev;here classified
Source: Nancy Rytina and Suzanne Bianchi , "Occupational Reclassification
and Changes in Distribution by Gender", Monthly Labor Review, March 1984
pg. 16.
33
TABLE A-21
UNITED STATES
% DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYED WOMEN, BY MAJOR OCCUPATION GROUP,
ANNUAL AVERAGES FOR SELECTED YEARS, 1960-83
OCCUPATION GROUP 1953 1981 1980 1975 1970 1960
TOTAL EMPLOYED, in thousands 44,047 42,145 41,283 33,553 29,667 21,874
percent of Total Employed 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
PROFESSIONAL & TECH. WORKERS
MANAGERS h ADMIN. .except farm
SALES WORKERS
CLERICAL WORKERS
CRAFT & KINDRED WORKERS
OPERATIVES, except transport
TRANSPORT EQUIP. OPERATIVES
NONFARM LABORERS
PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WORKERS
OTHER SERVICE WORKERS
FARMERS & FARM MANAGERS
FARM LABORERS &. SUPERVISORS
17.3%
17.0%
16.8%
15 . 7%
14.5%
12.4%
7.9%
7.4%
6.9%
5.2%
4.5%
5.0%
12.8%
6.8%
6.8%
6.9%
7.0%
7.7%
29 . 7%
34 . 7%
35 . 1%
35 . 1%
34 . 5%
30.3%
2.3%
1 . 9%
1.8%
1.5%
1.1%
1.0%
7.4%
9.7%
10.0%
11.0%
14 . 5%
15.2%
.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.5%
1.6%
1.2%
1.2%
1.1%
0.5%
0.4%
2. 1%
2.3%
2.5%
3.4%
5.1%
8.9%
16.8%
17. 1%
17.0%
18.2%
16.5%
14.8%
.4%
0.4%
0.4%
0.3%
0.3%
0.5%
1.0%
0.8%
0.8%
1.1%
1.5%
3.2%
"•'•'NOTE: The large increase in the percentage of sales workers is the result of
a Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) definitional change. Sales supervisors
and proprietors were included in the sales worker category for the first time in 1983.
Source: U.S. Department and U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
"Employment and Training Report of the President", 1979 and U.S. Department of Labor,
Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Employment and Earnings", January 1979-1984.
34
TABLE A-22
MONTANA
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATION BY SEX, 1982 AND 1983
(Persons age 16 and over)
TOTAL EMPLOYMENT
Percent of total employment
WHITE COLLAR WORKERS, TOTAL
PROFESSIONAL & TECHNICAL
MANAGERS & ADMINISTRATORS,
EXCEPT FARM
SALES WORKERS ••■
CLERICAL WORKERS
BLUE COLLAR WORKERS, TOTAL
CRAFT 6c KINDRED WORKERS
OPERATIVES, EXCEPT TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT OPERATIVES
NON-FARM LABORERS
SERVICE WORKERS
FARM WORKERS
1982
1983
MEN
WOMEN
MEN
WOMEN
211,000
147,000
210,000
149,000
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
39 . 5%
67.1%
37.6%
65 . 7%
13.5%
16.3%
12.1%
16.6%
14.5%
8.7%
10.7%
8.1%
6.9%
6.4%
11.8%
13.1%
4.5%
35 . 7%
3.0%
27.9%
41.0%
6.4%
39.5%
5.8%
20 . 8%
1.6%
20.9%
1.0%
8.2%
2.4%
3.5%
2.8%
5.8%
0.6%
9.5%
0.5%
6.3%
1.8%
5.6%
1.5%
7.0%
22.6%
8.2%
23.6%
12.6%
3.9%
14.8%
5.0%
NOTE: Ilie large increase in the percentage of sales workers is the result of
a Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) definitional change.
Source: U . S . Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Current Population Survey, Household data, annual averages, 1982 and 1983,
35
TABLE A- 2 3
MONTANA
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY AND SEX,
CPS 1983 ANNUAL AVERAGES
MEN
WOMEN
TOTAL EMPLOYED
Percent of total employed
NON-AGRICULURAL INDUSTRIES, total
Private non-ag wage & salary workers, total
(including mining)
Construction
Manufacturing
Durable
Non-durable
Transportaiiion, Conimunication, &
Public Utilities
Trade
Finance, Insurance, & P.eal Estate
Service Industries
Government
AGRICULTURE
210,000
149,000
100.0%
100.0%
85.7%
91.5%
58.5%
57.6%
6.6%
1.0%
8.7%
3.6%
4.8%
1.5%
3.9%
2.2%
7.8%
2.9%
17.0%
21.0%
2.3%
6.9%
9.7%
21.4%
13.6%
21.3%
13.7%
5.9%
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Current Population Survey, Household data, annual averages, 1982
TABLE A-24
MONTANA
FEMALE EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY
(annual averages, # in thousands)
NON-AGR I CULTURAL WAGE & SALARY
Manufacturing
Mining
Contract Construction
Trans. & Public Utilities
Wholesale & Retail Trade
Finance, Insurance, & Re::! Estate
Services
Government
1975
1980
1983
94.6
133.9
132.0
2.5
3.0
2.7
.3
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.5
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1.5
1.9
3.5
4.4
4.6
24.9
36.6
34.3
6.2
8.4
8.1
28.1
34.9
38.2
18.3
44.6
41.9
Source: Department of Labor, Research and Analysis Bureau," Montana
Annual Planning Information 1985" and Establishment Survey Employment
Estimates 1975 and 1980.
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45
TABLE A-27
MONTANA STATE GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN BY CATEGORY
1975* 1982 1983
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
ADMINISTRATORS
76
10
9%
84
PROFESSIONALS
627
28
8%
832
TECHNICIANS
458
37
4%
859
PROTECTIVE SERVICES
16
3
0%
24
PARA PROFESSIONALS
817
60
6%
514
CLERICAL
1,948
86
7%
1,485
CRAFT
30
3
7%
5
SERVICE
280
28
8%
150
13
2%
119
16.6%
32
4%
958
33.7%
52
7%
977
54.6%
5
3%
28
5.4%
67
4%
593
66.6%
85
9%
1,447
86.8%
1
3%
7
1.7%
18
4%
126
16.6%
* starting date of Montana's Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) program.
Source: Personnel Division, MT Department of Administration,
"Annual Report to the Governor on the Montana E.E.O. and
Affirmative Action Program, for the period ending June 30, 1983".
PERCENT
90
75
60
45
30
15
GRAPH ^-III
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF
FEMALE STATE GOVERNMENT WORKERS
1975 AND 1983
LEGEND
1975
1983
I icM^
AOMIN PROF
TECH PROTECT PARA
SERV PROF
CLERK CRAFT
SERV /
MAINT
OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY
46
TABLE A- 2 8
UNITED STATES
WOMEN APPRENTICES, 1973-1979
APPRENTICES
WOMEN AS
YEAR
WOMEN
TOTAL
% OF TOTAL
1979
13,343
323,866
4.1%
1978
8,997
290,224
3.1%
1977
5,777
262,586
2.2%
1976
4,334
254,968
1.7%
1975
3,198
266,477
1.2%
1974
2,619
291,049
0.9%
1973
1,986
283,774
0.7%
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, Bulletin 80-5
and unpublished data.
PER
wor
5
4
3
2
1
0
GRAPH A-IV
^^^'^ lOMEN APPRENTICES AS A
^^^ PERCENTAGE OF U.S. APPRENTICES
'.
/
r
::
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
YEAR
47
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48
SELF-EMPLOYED WOMEN AND WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESSES
Educational advancement and increased financial/credit opportuni-
ties have helped make starting one's own business an increasingly
viable option for women. From 1977 to 1980, the number of female-
owned sole proprietorships in the United States increased 33 percent,
in relation to an 11 percent growth for those which were male-owned.
The number of self-employed women rose by 10 percent from 1980 to 1982.
While it is important to consider the fact that these percentage gains
for women are calculated using much smaller bases than those for males,
they are still definite indications of positive growth. (9)
Montana Census data list 5,957 self-employed females for 1970, and
8,758 in 1980. (TABLE A-26) This is an increase of 47.0 percent, compared
with a 6.7 percent change in the same category for all employed persons.
In 1980, 22 percent of persons listed as self-employed were female.
TABLE A-30 summarizes U.S. & Montana sole proprietorships by owner
gender. The percentage of businesses in Montana which are female-
operated (25.1%) is slightly higher than the national figure (22.0%).
It is interesting to note that 1980 male-operated sole proprietorships
in Montana comprise 59.1 percent of the number of businesses and are
responsible for 90.0 percent of the total receipts.
The industry profile of male-operated businesses in Montana cor-
responds closely with the national picture, with the exception of a
slightly higher percentage of agricultural and fewer service industry
businesses. (GRAPH A-V)
A state to national comparison of those with female operators
brings up considerable differences. As with male-operated sole-proprie-
torships, the variance exists primarily in the agricultural and service
industries. The Montana female distribution of businesses in agricul-
tural industries is 35.1 percent, compared to 10.1 percent in the
United States; and for services, 32.5 percent as opposed to a U.S. fig-
ure of 43.5 percent. The categories of Agriculture, Wholesale and
Retail Trade, and Services comprise 94 percent of female-operated sole
proprietorships in Montana. (GRAPH A-V)
TABLE A-30
UNITED STATES AND MONTANA
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIPS, 1980
(thousands of dollars)
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIPS,
including farms FEMALE-OPERATED MALE-OPERATED JOINTLY-OPERATED
UNITED STATES:
# 12,701,597 22.0% 72.2% 5.8%
$ 505,884,882 7.9% 89.6% 2.5%
MONTANA :
# 84,029 25.1% 59.1% 5.8%
$ 2,960,103 7.3% 90.0% 2.7%
Source: The State of Small Business: A Report to the President, Mar. 1984
49
SELF-EMPLOYED WOMEN AND WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESSES, cont.
Adequate financing is essential to women starting and maintain-
ing their own businesses. This has traditionally been a very real
area of limitation for women. In or out of business, today's woman
is learning the necessity of some form of established credit in her
name alone.
The Small Business Administration (SBA) encourages and assists
female entrepreneurs through loans and training/information programs.
During Fiscal Year 1980, over 144,000 U.S. women received SBA manage-
ment training and 50,000 were counseled.
TABLE A- 31
MONTANA
SMALL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION LOANS
FISCAL YEAR 1977 - MARCH 1984
WOMEN-OWNED** LOAN APPROVALS
BUSINESSES (WOB)
WOB AS % OF
APPROVALS
FYE 1977*
DOLLARS
$7,
218,
550
$45,
580,091
15.
.8%
NUMBERS
74
393
18.
.8%
FYE 1981
DOLLARS
$3,
,128,
,673
$51,
592,000
6.
■0%
NUMBERS
56
412
13.
.6%
FYE 1982
DOLLARS
$3,
,341,
,980
$40,
863,000
8
.2%
NUMBERS
39
348
11
•2%
FYE 1983
DOLLARS
$6,
,930,
, 192
$91,
,181,000
7
.6%
NUMBERS
95
615
15
■4%
6 MOS. 1984
DOLLARS
$2,
,793,
,476
$34,
,980,325
8
.0%
NUMBERS
37
384
13
•0%
* FISCAL YEAR IS OCTOBER 1 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 30.
** WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESS for federal procurement purposes is a small
business of at least 51 percent owned, controlled and managed by a
v/oman or women who are United States citizens. These women must
exercise the authority to make policy decisions and be actively
involved in day-to-day management of the business. This is synonomous
with female-operated business.
Source: U.S. Small Business Association, Helena, Montana, April 1984.
50
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51
GRAPH A-V
PERCENT
50
40
30
20
10
m
FISH
FEMftLE OPERATED BUSI^ESSES
UNITED STATES AND MONTftNfl
1980
i h vr^fA
RG/TOR/ mn^vc / TCU
MNP
TRfCe FIRE SERVICE
U.S
□
NON'^ANA
PERCENT
40
30
20
10 ■
MALE OPERATED BUSINESSES
UNITED SI Alts (WD MONTANA
1980
AG/FOR/ MIN,-CC / TCU
liNF
FISH
TRACE FIRE SERVICE
/i/^JOff INDUSTRY GROUP'S
US
CD
MONTANA
52
AGRICULTURE
The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports a total of 3.3 million peo-
ple in the United States employed in agricultural industries in 1983,
with 20.1 percent of those being female. The percentage of female farm
workers has risen as the total number of agricultural workers has de-
creased over the past 35 years. (TABLE A-33)
It is difficult to get a complete picture of females as a part of
agriculture. According to the 1980 National Farm Survey data, 55 per-
cent of farm womien label themselves farm operators. ( 10) However, the
1979 income tax returns showed their self-classifications as 60 percent
wives, mothers, or homemakers, 5 percent as farm wives, 31 percent as
off-farm occupations, and only 4 percent as farmers or ranchers. Those
who listed themselves as farmers tended to be unmarried (including more
widows), older, and better educated. h majority of those surveyed (50%)
said they could operate the farm alone if something happened to their
husbands .
Montana women are an important economic asset in the field of ag-
ricvilture. There is no single information source which gives a full
picture of female agricultural participation in the state. Agriculture,
Forestry, and Fisheries industry totals from the 1980 Census show 28,451
employed males and 5,852 females employed in that category. When com-
pared to the total employed m all occupations in 1980, farm occupations
made up 12.1 percent for men and 2.8 percent for women.
A look at farm occupations by class of worker from 1970 and 1980
Census data tells us there were 2,018 women employed in farm occupations
in 1970, compared with 25,404 men. In 1980, there were 3,782 women and
23,363 men. (TABLE A-34) It is worthy of note that the proportion of
those classified as unpaid family workers dropped from 33.7 percent of
farm workers to 14.2 percent during the 1970-80 period. In the U.S. the
number of unpaid farm laborers, of whom 2 of 3 are women, dropped by
170,000 from 1972 to 1980.(11) This happened in response to a decline
in the total number of farms and because of the movement of women into
paid nonagricultural jobs.
The 1983 Current Population Survey (CPS) estimates show the total
Montanans over age 16 employed in agricultural-related industries as
37,700, with 8,800 or 23.3 percent being women. The marital status
distribution of female agricultural workers in the state, including un-
paid family workers, is as follows:
-- Married, spouse present 55.5%
-- Single, never married 19.4%
-- Other marital status (incl. divorced, 9.7%
widowed, and separated)
-- Head with other relatives 5.4%
According to the Department of Commerce Census of Agriculture, an
estimated 1,284 women operated Montana farms in 1982. (TABLE A-35) For
farm operations where both husband and wife participate, the parties in-
volved chose who would be designated as the operator. Because a major-
ity of Montana farms are family enterprises in which the husband is
likely to be considered the head, this count of female farm operators is
perhaps a better reflection of women who are solely in charge of a farm.
53
AGRICULTURE, cont.
A woman's contribution to an agricultural business is often crucial
to family farm survival. Although her major responsibility may be home
and child care, the farm woman is involved in nearly half of all farm
tasks. Her duties may include plowing, fertilizing, harvesting, animal
care, running errands, bookkeeping, supervision of labor, and the rais-
ing and preserving of food for the family.
Appproximately 46 percent of these women are also employed off the
farm. As shown by GRAPH A-VI most of these women work for financial
reasons. Their income is often necessary for continuation of the family
farming business. An Oklahoma study indicated that many of those paid
off-farm laborers sought jobs flexible enough to allow maintenance of
their farm responsibilities during summer months or on days off. (12) The
National Farm Women Survey indicates that those women engaged in off-
farm employment report performance of farm tasks on a regular basis in
percentages almost equal to v/omen not employed off the farm. This means
a multiplicity of roles for the farm wife, as she performs the tasks
involved in being a farmer, wife and mother, and off-farm employee.
The Jones-Webb/Nickols study jn Oklahoma gives us a qualitative
look at farm women. It outlines the characteristics of contemporary
young farm women in ten summary statements.
"1. They're responsible for and perform most of the tasks in home pro-
duction, emotional support, and community involvement for their
f ami lies .
2. They and their husbands share child care responsibilities.
3. They're consistent, dependable helpers with farm tasks that can't be
efficiently handled by one person and are content with their level
of responsibility in tliese taslis.
4. They're often responsible for an off-farm income that provides a
cash flow for the household and family farm operation to continue.
5. They're knowledgeable in most areas of family financial plaxining:
farm debt management, estate planning, retirement accounts, insur-
ance policies, and household properties.
5. They're worried about the present economic situation of their family
farms, but remain optimistic about farming in the future.
7. They perceive themselves as a necessary part of the farming opera-
tion, as a helper and support person.
8. If farm women could no longer perform thair roles, they expect that
extended and nuclear family members would assume their responsibili-
ties.
9. They prefer the farming lifestyle over all others.
10. They have a complicated work-family role system composed of a family
role and a dual work role. An effective management strategy for
combining their triad of roles is for farm women to rely heavily on
extended family networks." (13)
54
TABLE A-33
UNITED STATES
PERSONS EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES
ANNUAL AVERAGES 1948-1983
(# in thousands)
TOTAL
FEMALES, ]
.6YRS.&0\
YEAR
16 YRS. & OVER
NUMBER
PERCE
1983*
2,950
587
19.9%
1982*
3,011
561
18.6%
1981
3,368
667
19.8%
1980
3,364
656
19.5%
1979
3,347
661
19.7%
1978
3,387
669
19.8%
1977
3,283
612
18.6%
1976
3,331
588
17.7%
1975
3,408
584
17.1%
1974
3,515
596
17.0%
1973
3,470
622
17.9%
1972
3,484
635
18.2%
1971
3,394
599
17.7%
1970
3,463
601
17.4%
1969
3,606
643
17.8%
1968
3,817
660
17.3%
1967
3,844
680
17.7%
1966
3,979
736
18.5%
1965
4,361
814
18.7%
1964
4,523
832
18.4%
1963
4,687
878
18.7%
1962
4,944
875
17.7%
1961
5,200
902
17.4%
1960
5,458
986
18.1%
1959
5,565
1
,033
18.6%
1958
5,586
990
17.7%
1957
5,947
1
,123
18.9%
1956
6,283
1
,244
19.8%
1955
6,450
1
,184
18.4%
1954
6,205
1
,006
16.2%
1953
6,260
1
,006
16.1%
1952
6,500
1
,111
17.1%
1951
6,726
1
, 193
17.7%
1950
7,160
1
,159
16.2%
1949
7,658
1
,315
17.1%
1948
7,629
1
,271
16.7%
* 1982 and 1983 figures are for the month of December, not
seasonally adjusted.
Source: 1948-1981 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, "Labor Force Statistics Derived From the Current
Population Survey: A Databook, Vol.1, September 1982.
1982 and 1983 U.S. Dept . of Labor, "Employment and Earnings",
January 1984.
55
TABLE A- 3 4
MONTANA
NUMBER EMPLOYED IN FARM OCCUPATIONS
BY SEX AND CLASS OF WORKER, 1970 AND 1980
Persons age 16 and over
1980
MALES, TOTAL
FARM OPERATORS & MANAGERS
FARM OCCUPATIONS, EXCEPT MGR.
RELATED AGRICULTURAL OCCUR.
FEMALES, TOTAL
FARM OPERATORS & MANAGERS
FARM OCCUPATIONS, EXCEPT MGR.
RELATED AGRICULTURAL OCCUR.
TOTAL
PRIVATE
GOVT.
SELF-
UNPAID
EMPLOYED
WAGE &
EMP.
FAMILY
SALARY
WORKERS
23,363
11,055
1,140
13,004
711
16,284
3,505
939
12,771
--
8,132
7,162
8
73
704
947
388
193
160
7
3,782
1,730
75
1,439
538
1,572
209
3
1,360
--
1,927
1,337
22
30
538
283
184
50
49
--
1970
MALES, TOTAL
FARMERS & FARM MANAGERS
FARM LABORERS & FARM WORKERS
FEMALES, TOTAL
FARMERS & FARM MANAGERS
FARM LABORERS & FARM WORKERS
26,404
9, 109
127
16,
,363
805
17,965
1,613
10
16,
,327
15
8,439
7,496
117
36
790
2,018
494
37
807
680
856
49
--
807
--
1, 162
445
37
--
680
Source: Montana Census, Chapter D, 1970 and 1980.
56
TABLE A- 3 5
MONTANA
1982 vs. 1978 AGRICULTURAL COMPARISONS
1982
1978
NUMBER ALL FARMS
23,568
23,565
FARMS TYPES BY ORGANIZATION
INDIVIDUAL OR FAMILY
PARTNERSHIP
CORPORATION- FAMILY HELD
OTHER THAN FAMILY
FARMING
RES. ON FARM OPERATED
RES. NOT ON FARM OPERATED
OTHER THAN FARMING
RES. ON FARM OPERATED
RES. NOT ON FARM OPERATED
FEMALE OPERATORS
% OF ALL FARMS
LAND IN FARMS, ACRES
18,840
19,042
2,099
2,305
2,240
1,919
96
93
RATION AND
RESIDENCE
16,893
16,855
13,063
13,076
2,047
2, 109
6,675
6,710
4,333
4,347
1,661
1,661
1,284
1, 161
5.5%
4.9%
2,401,774
2,
,626, 166
DEFINITIONS-
FAFIM: In determining the number of farms, survey questional res
were mailed to all individuals, businesses, and organizations
which could be readily identified as being associated with agri-
culture. ijKjse were drawn froia the 1974 Census of Agriculture
listings, based on Department of Agriculture and Internal Revenue
Service sources.
OPERATOR: The term "operator" designates a person who operates a
farm, either doing the work or making day to day decisions about
such things as planting, harvesting, marketing, etc. The operator
may be the owner, a member of the owner's household, a salaried
manager, a tenant, a renter, or a sharecropper. For farm operations
where both husband and wife participated, the designation was
determined by the parties involved.
Source: Montana Department of Commerce, 1982 Census of Agriculture.
57
PERCENT
GRAPH A-VI
REASONS FOR »OttEN*S OFF-FARM EttPLOYMENT
PART-TIME AND FULL-TIME
1982
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
LEGEND
[77] PART-TIME
FULL-TIME
'AAV, ij
PROFESSIONAL
SOCIAL
OTHER
FINANCIAL
SOURCE: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 1982
HANDBOOK OF AGRICULTURAL CHARTS
58
CHILDCARE
The availability of reliable, quality childcare is an important
employment issue. In March 1984 an estimated 32.7 million U.S. child-
ren had mothers who were working or seeking work. In 1940, 8.5% of
mothers with children under age 18 were working, in 1970 the number had
grown to 40 percent, and by 1982, 59 percent of mothers with minor
children were in the labor force. (14) (TABLE A-35 gives the labor
force status of women with preschool children. )
Information concerning where and how these children are cared for
while mom works is sparse. TABLE A-37 presents a look at childcare
arrangements used by women whose youngest child was under age 5. Women
employed full-time were most likely to use childcare provided in an-
other's home, while for part-time workers the father often provided
care at home. Estimations of the number of school-age children who are
responsible for themselves and/or younger siblings during out-of-school
hours range from 2 to 6 million.
In 1980 there were 230,894 persons under age 18 in Montana house-
holds, many of whose parents are in the labor force. Of those children
under age 18 in Montana, 81.1% are in married couple families, 10.4%
have a female householder with no husband present, 2.0% have a male
householder with no wife present, and 6.4% live with other relatives
or non-relatives, are a spouse or householder, or are inmates of
institutions or group quarters. There are 75,416 children under the
age of six in Montana. There are 43,733 females in Montana in the labor
force with children under six. In addition, 19,952 of the 207,525
families in Montana were headed by a female (no spouse present). Of
those families headed by a female, 3031 or 15.2% had children under age
six and were in the labor force. Also, of the 207,525 families, 85,570
were marrried couple families where the wife was in the labor force.
Those with their own children under six were 19,935 or 23.0% of married
couple families with the wife in the labor force.
Approximately 7,000 licensed daycare facilities existed in Montana
as of January 1984. For the state, as well as for the nation, there is
no reliable count of children receiving daycare or those in need of it.
Yet, studies have indicated quality daycare has far-reaching results on
the future of our children. Dr. Burton White, noted child psychologist,
conducted research at Harvard University which established that
intellectual stimulation provided before 2 years of age has a strong,
positive influence on intellectual capacity (15). Therefore, it is
critical that preschool settings also provide intellectual stimulation.
The Montana Association for the Education of Young Children believes
the following criteria are important in a preschool setting:
-- PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: The indoor and outdoor physical environm.ent
fosters optimal growth and development through opportunities for
exploration and learning.
-- HEALTH AND SAFETY: The health and safety of children and adults
are protected and enhanced.
-- ADMINISTRATION: The program is efficiently and effectively
administered with attention to the needs and desires of children,
parents and staff.
59
CHILDCARE, cont.
— STAFF QUALIFICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT: The program is staffed by
adults who understand child development and who recognize and
provide for children's needs.
-- CURRICULUM: The curriculum encourages children to be actively
involved in the learning process, to experience a variety of
developmentally appropriate activities and materials, and to pursue
their own interests in the context of life in the community
and in the world.
-- EVALUATION: Systematic assessment of the effectiveness of the
program in meeting its goals for children, parents and staff is
conducted to ensure that quality care and education are provided
and maintained (15).
In the National Survey of Working Women, which gathered responses
from over 80,000 employed women, one-third of those with dependent
children reported that childcare was a problem. One problem is the ex-
spense involved. The average cost of daycare for two children is $5,000
annually, while women working full-time in 1980 had average annual
eanings of $11,197. (15) Middle-income families take a total of $2 bil-
lion a year in childcare tax allowances, but these allowances are of no
use to the single mother who often does not earn enough to pay federal
taxes. (17)
A June 1982 CPS study shows 25.7 percent of married mothers and
34.7 percent of mothers of other marital statuses who were not in the
labor force, would seek employment if childcare were available at a
reasonable cost. Often it is those women who are most in need of em-
ployment who find that a lack of satisfactory, affordable childcare
keeps them out of the labor force. A welfare mother's AFDC payments
are stopped when she finds employment, even though her wages may be too
low to pay for proper childcare.
Options have been proposed and implemented in an attempt to deal
with the childcare problem. One such solution is employer-sponsored
childcare. Employers who provide some form of childcare benefits
have found that:
-- job turnover was reduced by 57%,
-~ absenteeism was reduced by 72%,
-- work attitudes improved by 55%,
-- and publicity increased by 60% (18).
Extended school daycare has been used successfully in some districts,
where the school offers such programs as art, physical education, and
outside activities until 6 p.m.
60
TABLE A-36
UNITED STATES
LABOR FORCE STATUS OF WOMEN AGE 18-44
WITH YOUNGEST CHILD UNDER 5 YRS . OLD
JUNE 1977 AND JUNE 1982
YEAR & LABOR FORCE STATUS
1982
number
percent
IN LABOR FORCE
employed
unemployed
NOT IN LABOR FORCE
1977
number
percent
IN LABOR FORCE
employed
unemployed
NOT IN LABOR FORCE
TOTAL
12,486,000
100.0%
48.2%
40.8%
7.4%
51.8%
11,593,000
100.0%
40.6%
35.0%
5.6%
59.4%
TABLE A-37
UNITED STATES
% DISTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL TYPE OF CHILD CARE ARRANGEMENTS USED BY
MOTHERS 18-44 YRS. FOR THEIR YOUNGEST CHILD UNDER 5 YRS.
BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS, JUNE 1982
TOTAL
EMPLOYED
EMPLOYED
EMPLOYED
FULL-TIME
PART-TIME
NUMBER OF MOTHERS
5,086,000
3,263,000
1,824,000
PERCENT
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
CARE IN CHILD'S HOME
30.6%
25.7%
39.3%
by father
13.9%
10.3%
20.3%
by otlier relative
11.2%
10.3%
12.7%
by non-relative
5.5%
5.1%
6.3%
CARE IN ANOTHER HOME
40.2%
43.8%
34.0%
by relative
18.2%
19.7%
15.6%
by non-relative
22.0%
24.1%
18.4%
GROUP CARE CENTER
14.8%
18.8%
7.5%
MOTHER CARES FOR CHILD
WHILE WORKING
9.1%
6.2%
14.4%
OTHER ARRANGEMENTS
DON'T KNOW OR NO ANSWER
0.2%
5.1%
0.3%
5.3%
0.1%
4.7%
Source: (both Tables) "Child-care Arrangements of Working Mothers,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, CPS Reports, Special
Studies Series P-23, No. 129.
61
ARMED FORCES/VETERANS
The past 20 years have witnessed tremendous growth in female
military enlistment. In 1962, U.S military women were outnumbered by
men 70 to 1. By 1972 there existed a 43 to 1 ratio, and in 1982 the
male-to female ratio of resident military personnel had declined to
11 to 1. Three factors encouraged this growth: the 1973 change to an
all-volunteer military, increased recruitment for both sexes, and the
general movement into the labor force by women. Each branch of the
military imposes limits on the number of women. For example, in 1982
the Army had a set limit of 70,000, but had an actual enrollment of
64,300 women. The actual female enrollment was 9.6% of all enlisted
members of the Army in 1982 .
Women are proportionately best represented in the Air Force and
have the least representation in the Marine Corps where men outnumber
them 22 to 1. United States female military distribution is divided
among the services as follows:
-- Army 40%
-- Air Force 33%
-- Navy 23%
-- Marines 5%
On the whole, women constitute about 9 percent of total enlistees
and, as o^ 1982, 9.2 percent of all officers are female. There are
differences in the percentage of female officers when specific services
are examined. In the Air Force 10.2 percent of officers are female,
while the total is 3.1 percent in the Marine Corps. (19)
Montana 1980 Census figures list 3,958 men and 324 women as members
of the Armed Forces. This Montana female representation of 7.6 percent
is below the national number of 9 percent.
Veterans
As of March 31, 1983 there were an estimated 1,150,000 female vet-
erans living in tl;e United Stat'^^ ird Puer-t-'-^ Rico. (20) This total is
4.1 percent of all veterans in civilian life.
Of that 1,150,000, slightly ovej- one-third served during p'oacetime
only, v/hich is a proportion twice as large as that of the male veteran
population. Sixteen percent of female veterans served during the post-
Vietnam era compared to ^ percenr of men. The breaJ.down of U.S. women
who are veterans of wartime military by time of service is:
World War I 11,000
World War II 384,000
r.orean Conflict 96,000
Vietnam Era 249,000
TOTAL 740,000
The median age for veterans indicates little difference between the
se.xes (51.4 years for male veterans, 51.9 for females). A specific age
breakdown reveals a noticeably larger share of female veterans on both
extremes of the age scale. Twenty-eight percent of female veterans are
under age 35 compared to 16 percent of males. Twenty percent of female
veterans are age 65 and over compared to 14 percent of males.
62
ARMED FORCES/VETERANS cont.
Tables A-39 and A-40 deal with the Montana veteran population. Of
the total veteran count as of the 1980 Census, 3.7 percent were female,
compared to 4.1 percent nationally. The distribution of war versus
peacetime vets for Montana women in 1983 is close to that for the
United States.
When comparing veteran age groups, Montana distribution differs
from the national picture.* A 1980 Census veteran age breakdown shows
the following distribution:
WOMEN MEN
16-39 years 34.7% 46.4%
40-59 years 42.1% 34.0%
60 yrs.& over 23.3% 19.6%
The number of female veterans is predicted to rise to 1,268,000 in
the U.S. and to reach 5,300 in Montana by the year 2000. It is of in-
creasing importance to be aware of the needs of these women, especially
the elderly segment of that population.
PROJECTED NUMBER OF FEMALE VETS LIVING IN MONTANA
actual total 1983 4,300
projected 1985 4,500
1990 4,800
1995 5,100
2000 5,300
*Note : The age groupings used by the Census do not correspond exactly
to those used in the U.S. age group discussion.
63
TABLE A-38
UNITED STATES
MEMBERS OF THE ARMED FORCES BY SEX
ANNUAL AVERAGES 1948-1981
(# in thousands)
YEAR
TOTAL, 15YRS.&0VER
FEMALES, 16 YRS . & OVER
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1
456
1
616
1
649
3
098
3
593
3
547
3
350
3
048
2
826
2
799
2
636
2
551
2
514
2
572
2
827
2
737
2
738
2
722
3
122
3
446
3
534
3
506
3
188
2
816
2
449
2
326
2
22Q
2
180
2
144
2
133
2
117
2
088
2
102
2
142
UMBER
% OF TO'
15
1.0%
18
1-1%
23
1-4%
37
1-2%
46
1.3%
47
1.3%
40
1-2%
36
1.2%
34
1-2%
33
1.2%
32
1.2%
32
1.3%
32
1.3%
33
1.3%
33
1.2%
32
1.2%
31
1.1%
32
1.2%
34
1.1%
35
1.0%
38
1.1%
39
1.1%
39
1.2%
41
1.5%
43
1.8%
51
2.2%
66
3 . 0%
89
4.1%
106
4.9%
115
5.4%
125
5.9%
139
6.7%
159
7.7%
178
8.3%
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Labor
Force Statistics Derived From the Current Population Survey: A Databook,
Vol.1, September 1982.
64
TABLE A-39
MONTANA
NUMBER OF VETERANS BY SEX, AGE, AND RACE, 1980
Veterans 16&over 16-29yrs. 30-39yrs. 40-49yrs. 50-59yrs. 60-69yrs. 70&over
Total
male
104,524
10
,621
24
,914
21,504
26
,952
14
,982
5
,551
female
4,066
868
842
484
926
622
324
White
male
100,544
9
,941
23
,679
20,697
26
,117
14
,631
5
,479
female
3,904
802
820
462
902
609
309
Black
male
212
53
60
39
40
20
-
female
18
-
-
-
11
11
7
Amer . Indian ,
Eskimo, 6c Aleut
male 3,387
581
1,067
656
711
female 118
42
22
22
24
Asian ix
Pacific Islander
male 134
14
33
27
41
female
-
-
-
-
Spanish Origin
male 849
236
202
232
161
female 65
29
6
16
-
321
70
14
51
8
19
13
Soui-ce : Montana Census 1980. Chapter 1) .
TABLE A-40
MONTANA
FEMALE VETERANS
MARCH 31, 1983
TOTAL VETERANS
4,300
Wartime Veterans 3,000
Vietnam Era 1 , 100
Korean Conflict 400
World War II 1,500
World War I -
Peacetime Veterans 1,300
Post-Vietnam Era 700
Between Korean Conflict 500
and Vietnam
Other peacetime 200
■•'•'less than jO
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.
Source: "The Female Veteran Population", Veterans Administration, Office
of Reports and Statistics, November, 1983.
65
FOOTNOTES FOR LABOR FORCE CHARACTERISTICS
(1) "The lasting changes brought by women workers", Business Week,
March 15, 1982, p. 4.
(2) Women and Work, by Veronica Nieva and Barbara Gutek, Praeger Publ.,
New York, . 1981, p. 49.
(3) "Beyond Nine to Five" by Victoria Horstmann, Working Woman Vol.7:
97-8, May 1982.
(4) The Complete Guide to Job Sharing, by Patricia Lee, Walker & Co.,
New York, 1983, p. 93.
(5) Determinants of Female Reentrant Unemployment, by Ethel B. Jones.
Kalamazoo, Michigan, The Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1983.
(5) Carol Boyd Leon, "Occupational Winners and Losers: Who They Were
During 1972-80", Monthly Labor Review, June 1982, p. 19.
(7) William Breliy and James Baron, "A Women's Place is With Other
Women: Sex Segregation in the Workplace" (paper prepared for the Nation-
al Research Council's Workshop on Job Segregation by Sex, May 24-25,
1982, Washington, D.C.)
(8) Veronica Nieva and Barbara Gutek, Women and Work, Praeger Publishers
New York, 1981, p. 49.
(9) "State of Small Business: A Report to the President", March 1984.
(10) 1980 National Farm Women Survey, National Opinion Research Center,
Chicago, Illinois.
(11) Carol Boyd Leon, "Occupational Winners and Losers: Who They Were
During 1972-80", Monthly Labor Review, June 1982, p. 27.
(12) Jeanette Jones-Webb and Sharon Y. Nickols, "Proyi-amming for Modern
Farm V^Dmen", Journal of Extension, May/June 1984.
(13) Jones-Webb and Nickols, p. 18, 19.
(14) "I'imp 1 oyi.-i:; aiuJ C^h i 1 d* aic : ll: . I .ih I i :'.h i uq Si'ivici-:; 'I'hi omjh Ihc VJork-
placo", U.S. Department of Labor, Otfice of tlie Secretary, Women's
Bureau, August 1982, p.l.
(15) Position Paper on Preschool Licensing, by Jane Lopp and Margaret
Briggs, September 30, 1984.
(16) "Child Care", California Commission on the Status of Women,
October 1983, p.l.
(17) Economics Opportunity Report, "Conference Report: Poverty, a Harsh
Reality for FAmilies Headed by Women", June 18, 1984.
(18) "Child Care", California Commission on the Status of Women,
October 1983, p.l.
(19) "Working for Uncle Sam", Monthly Labor Review, July 1984, pp. 4, 5.
(20) "The Female Veteran Popvilation" , Veterans Administration, Office
of Reports and Statistics, November 1983.
66
67
WAGEGAP
On a national scale the female/male earnings ratio has changed
little since 1955. As shown by TABLE B-5, women's median yearly earn-
ings as a percentage of men's has continued to hover near 60 percent.
Montana Census figures are even lower.
MONTANA
Median Income of Persons With Earnings Who Worked 50-52 Wks.
Women Men Ratio
1970 (ages 14 & over) $3,929 $ 7,521 52.2%
1980 (ages 15 & over) $7,915 $15,665 50.5%
1980 (ages 15+ & 35+ hrs/wk) $8,890 $16,020 55.5%
A look at weekly wages places U.S. earnings at a median of $371 for men
and $241 (65.0%) for women. For Montanan's age 18 and over, weekly
earnings were $339 for men and $196 (57.8%) for women in 1980. The lower
wagegap seen when examining weekly rather than annual earnings may be
due to the fact that median annual income includes part-time workers
(those working less than 35 hours per week). Only 9.6% of males with
earnings work 34 hours or less per week, while 33.8% of females with
earnings work 34 or less hours per week. Also, median annual earnings
are based on persons 15 years of age and older, while weekly earnings
include those 18 and over.
Income and earnings differences between men and women remain a
topic of considerable study and discussion. Characteristics such as
age, education, occupation, work experience and job tenure, and hours
worked are measured and compared in order to explain the discrepency.
Although there is some agreement concerning the major factors involved
in the wagegap, conclusions about the weight given to each factor
and the amount of interaction between them varies from explaining
little or none of the difference to accounting for as high as 71
percent. (1)
Results of a recent study using Bureau of Labor Statistics earn-
ings data estimated the amount the sex-earnings ratio would change if
women were distributed in employment according to the pattern for males.
Female/male ratio percentage
weekly earnings 1982 point change
Actual 65.0%
Redistrubuted by:
AGE 65.5% 0.5
YRS. OF SCHOOL 64.3% 0.7
(age 25 & over)
OCCUPATION 70.1% 5.1
INDUSTRY 67.9% 2.9
HOURS WORKED 68.2% 3.2
These factors may explain more or less than their sum depending on
their interaction. The sum of the above percentage changes would still
leave an 18 percent difference unexplained.
69
WAGEGAP, cont.
According to these findings, if all other characteristics remain
unchanged, women who work full-time who have an age distribution
exactly like that of males, would only narrow the earnings ratio
by 0.5 percent. Redistribution by years of school completed would
widen the gap slightly, indicating that women are not disadvantaged on
account of education. See TABLES B-5 and B-7 for a national and state
earnings summary by age and education.)
An occupational redistribution accomplished the greatest change.
There are three levels used by the Current Population Survey in gather-
ing occupational data. The wagegap in each of the eleven major occupa-
tional groupings is listed in TABLES B-10, B-11 and B-12. Because of
the great range of jobs within each of these groups, little change
tl.6%) would result from a redistribution on that level. The 5.1%
difference shown above was the result of redistribution at a more
detailed level, which includes 40 occupational divisions. Examination
at the Current Population Survey level which includes 422 occupational
titles, shows women earning less than men in nearly alloccupations .
For most major occupational groups, 40 percent of the men earn
at least as much as the highest-paid 10 percent of women workers.
The most highly paid occupations for women are very similar to
those for men. However, as shown by TABLE B-13, the highest paying
female position pays less than any of the occupations in the top
20 for males.
Employed women are concentrated in lower paying industries. In a
ranking of 52 industries for the BLS July 1982 Establishment Survey, the
industry with the highest female representation (82%) ranked 50th in
average hourly earnings. The industry ranking first in average hourly
earnings, the bituminous coal and lignite mining industry, was 52nd with
respect to the number of women employees (5%). An equal industry dis-
tribution, with other variables remaining constant, would narrow the
sex-earnings gap by 2.9 percentage points.
An estimated 3.2 percent change would be caused by an equalization
of the number of weekly hours worked by men and women. The numbers sug-
gest that the effect on women's earnings as a result of their working
fewer hours than men is brought about more because women are less likely
to hold higher paying jobs which demand long v/orkweeks than the fact
that they are less likely to work overtime and receive premium, pay.
Job tenure is also a consideration when explaining the female/male
wagegap. A January 1983 CPS special study showed that men had been with
their current employer an average of 5.1 years, compared to 3.3 years
for women. Job tenure did not differ significantly by sex until age 35,
after which time men in each 10 year age group had more seniority with
their employer than did women. When job tenure was combined with the
number of years of training completed in the present position, it was
found to explain as much as 23 percent of the gap. (2)
70
WAGEGAP, cont.
Shorter labor force interruptions, as women take less time away -,
from their jobs to have children, may soon change the job tenure pic-
ture. Another study, which may dispute the theory that female labor
force interruptions are responsible for a good portion of the wagegap,
found a rebound effect on the wages of women re-entering the labor mar-
ket. (3) Though their wages were lower when returning to work after a
time out of the labor force, they experienced a growth rapid enough to
nearly compensate for the time loss.
Mary Anne Devanna, research coordinator of the Columbia Business
School's Center for Research in Career Development, matched 45 men and
45 women who graduated with MBAs from the Columbia Business School be-
tween 1969 and 1972. (4) Each pair was matched to control for variables
that would effect job performance, such as family background, academic
record, and marital status. Female starting salaries were 98 percent of
the men's. Salary information collected in 1980 found a significant
widening of the wagegap. The salaries of those in the manufacturing in-
dustry were $59,733 for men and $41,818 (70%) for women, and for those
in finance $46,786 for men and $42,867 (92%) for women. The smallest
gap existed in the lowest paying industry. Service industry salaries
were $38,600 for males and $36,666 (95%) for females.
It is thought that part of the sex-earnings difference occurs be-
cause women often prefer jobs in industries which tend to be low
paying. Another common assumption is that women do not take their
careers seriously and so, are likely to leave a position because of
conflicts with family responsibilities. Devanna found no significant
difference in the MBA'S choice of industry or function, nor in their
attached importance to monetary or other rewards of the job. Several
of the women in the study had taken maternity leave during that 10
year period, but all had returned to full-time work with six months.
Her conclusion was that the wagegap cannot be fully explained except
by including the element of discrimination.
Results of the Mellor and Devanna studies cannot be expected to be
the same due to the sample selection each used for their study. Each
had a distinct sample specifically drawn to meet statistical criteria
for their respective projects.
71
WAGEGAP, cont.
Government positions appear to have a wagegap somewhat lower than
those of the private sector.
TABLE B-1
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES, 1981
(University positions not included)
OFFICIALS & ADMIN. *
median salary
PROFESSIONALS
median salary
TECHNICIANS
median salary
PROTECTIVE SERVICE
median salary
PARA-PROFESSIONALS
median salary
OFFICE/CLERICAL
median salary
SKILLED CRAFT
median salary
SERVICE/MAINTENANCE
median salary
FULL TIME EMPLOYMENT
median salary
PART TIME EMPLOYMENT
NEW HIRES
MALES
FEMALES
PERCENT
181,570
63,394
25.9%
$26,588
$19,225
72.3%
493,994
397,344
44.6%
$22,468
$18,095
80.5%
282,690
199, 177
41.3%
$18,214
$13,850
76.0%
601,317
65,771
9.9%
$18,646
$14,467
77.6%
116,824
280,525
70.6%
$13, 122
$11,399
86.9%
104,226
757,670
87.9%
$13,450
$11,827
87.9%
365,339
13,571
3.6%
$16,872
$11,496
68 . 1%
594,476
147,296
19.9%
$13,485
$10,594
78.6%
2,740,436
1,924,748
41.3%
$17,667
$13,081
74.0%
439,982
478,520
52 . 1%
346,053
358,264
50.9%
* This may be read as follows: Of the total employees who are in the
Officials and Administrators category, 25.9% are female. The female
median salary is 72.3% of that for men in the same category.
Source: U.S. EEO-4 Summary. Note: Median salary for part time
employment and new hires is not available for 1981 data.
The Montana state government figures shown on TABLE B-2 give
starting, as well as current salaries. In general, the wagegap for
current salaries was larger than that for starting salaries. This
discrepency may shrink as women continue to move into management and
administrative positions.
72
TABLE B-2
MONTANA STATE GOVERNMENT
SALARY ANALYSIS OF FEMALES AND MALES, MARCH 1983
(University positions not included)
OFFICIALS & ADMIN. MALE
no. of positions 393
avg. starting salary $25,695
avg. current salary $31,638
FEMALE
68
$21,405
$25,478
14.''7% *
83.3%
80.5%
PROFESSIONALS
no. of positions 1,840
avg. starting salary $19,407
avg. current salary $23,097
TECHNICIANS
no. of positions 832
avg. starting salary $15,447
avg. current salary $18,399
908
$17,584
$20,207
943
$13,541
$15,823
33.0%
90.6%
87.5%
53.1%
87.7%
85.9%
PROTECTIVE SERVICES
no. of positions 486
avg. starting salary $15,314
avg. current salary $17, 8^0
31
$13,699
$15,058
6.0%
89.5%
84.1%
PARAPROFESSIONALS
no. of positions 321
avg. starting salary $12,442
avg. current salary $14,183
619
$11,621
$13,340
65.9%
93.4%
94.0%
OFFICE AND CLERICAL
no. of positions 206
avg. starting salary $11,725
avg. current salary $13,734
1,548
$11,295
$12,762
88.3%
96.3%
92.9%
SKILLED CRAFTS
no. of positions 406
avg. starting salary $19,515
avg. current salary $21,011
7
$13,893
$15,957
1.7%
71.2%
75.9%
SERV I CE/MA I NTENANCE
no. of positions 629
avg. starting salary $15,567
avg. current salary $16,925
111
$11, 167
$12,480
15.0%
71.7%
73.7%
STATE TOTAL
no. of positions 5,113
avg. starting salary $17,647
avg. current salary $20,632
4,235
$13,372
$15,343
45.3%
75.7%
74.4%
* This column may be read as follows: Of the total employees in the
Officals and Administrators category, 14.7% are female. The average
starting salary for women is 83.3% of that for men. The average cur-
rent salary for women is 80.5% of male's current salary.
Source: Personnel Division, MT Department of Administration,
"Annual Report to the Governor on the Montana E.E.O. and
Affirmative Action Program, for the period ending June 30, 1983".
73
1981
Women's Earnings
Men
Women
as % of Men' s
$6.72
$4.35
64.7%
$4.41
$3.75
85 . 0%
$3.61
$3.39
93.9%
$5.25
$4.17
79.4%
$7.92
$4.74
59.8%
$7.53
$4.98
66.1%
$8.49
$4.84
57.0%
$8.65
$4.63
53.5%
$8.05
$4.45
55.3%
$4.35
$3.76
86.4%
$7.92
$4.74
59.8%
$6.09
$3.88
63.7%
$7.40
$4.18
56.5%
$8.43
$4.71
55 . 9%
$8.60
$5.49
63.8%
$8.22
$6.36
77.4%
Hourly Wagegap
About three-fifths of all 1981 wage and salary workers received
hourly wages. Workers paid on an hourly basis are more likely to be
employed in low-skilled occupations. Industries such as construction
and manufacturing have a high concentration of hourly wage workers.
As shown below, men had higher hourly eanings than women at all age
and education levels.
TABLE B-3
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN HOURLY EARNINGS OF WAGE AND SALARY WORKERS
Annual Averages, 1981
AGE Both Sexes
Total, 16 yrs. and over $5.27
16-24 yrs. $4.04
16-19 yrs. $3.47
20-24 yrs. $4.68
25 yrs. and over $6.13
25-34 yrs. $6.24
35-44 yrs. $6.38
45-54 yrs. $6.18
55-64 yrs. $5.88
65 yrs. and over $3.98
YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED
Total, 25 years and over $6.13
8 yrs. of school or less $5.05
1 to 3 years of high school $5.50
4 yrs. of high school $6.19
1-3 yrs. of college $6.91
4 yrs. of college or more $7.21
Source: Earl F. Mellor and George D. Stevens, "Usual Weekly Earnings:
Another Look at Intergroup Differences and Basic Trends", Monthly Labor
Review, April 1982, p. 23.
TABLE B-4
MONTANA
JOB PLACEMENTS BY HOURLY V/AGE RATE AND SEX
Fiscal Year 1983, ending 9-30-83
WAGE RATE MALES PLACED FEMALES PLACED
TOTAL 16,932 13,002
UNDER $3.35 975 1,317
$3.35-3.84 7,367 7,532
$3.85-3.99 154 246
$4.00-4.49 3,954 2,075
$4.50-4.99 1,736 1,131
$5.00-5.49 2,766 898
$5.50-5.99 477 352
$6.00-6.49 1,000 275
$6.49-6.99 489 273
$7.00 AND OVER 2,223 401
AVERAGE $4.65 $4.42
Source: Montana Employment Service Automated Reporting System
(ESARS), Tables 15 and D15, Sept. 30, 1983.
NOTE: ESARS data include only those persons dealt with at Montana Job
Service offices, and thus, cannot be considered a representative picture
of the state as a whole.
74
TABLE B-5
UNITED STATES
COMPARISON OF MEDIAN EARNINGS OF YEAR-ROUND FULL-TIME WORKERS,
BY SEX, 1955-1981
MEDIAN EARNINGS
Year
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
1955
Women' s
Women
Men
Earnings as
% of Men's
a
$12,001
$20,260
59.2%
$11, 197
$18,612
60.2%
$10,151
$17,014
59.7%
$ 9,350
$15,730
59.4%
$ 8,618
$14,626
58.9%
$ 8,099
$13,455
60.2%
$ 7,504
$12,758
58.8%
$ 6,772
$11,835
57.2%
$ 6,335
$11,186
56.6%
$ 5,903
$10,202
57.9%
$ 5,593
$
9,399
59 . 5%
$ 5,323
$
8,966
59.4%
$ 4,977
$
8,227
60.5%
$ 4,457
$
7,664
58.2%
$ 4,150
$
7,182
57.8%
$ 3,973
$
6,848
58.0%
$ 3,823
$
6,375
50.0%
$ 3,690
$
6, 195
59.6%
$ 3,561
$
5,978
59.6%
$ 3,446
$
5,974
59 . 5%
$ 3,351
$
5,644
59.4%
$ 3,293
$
5,317
60.8%
$ 3,193
$
5,209
61.3%
$ 3,102
$
4,927
63.0%
$ 3,008
$
4,713
63.8%
$ 2,827
$
4,466
63.3%
$ 2,719
$
4,252
63 . 9%
NOTE: For 1967-81, data include wage and salary income and earnings
from self-employment; for 1955-66, data include wage and salary
income only. For 1979, data are for persons 15 years of age and over;
earlier data are for persons 14 years of age and over.
Source: "Money Income of Families and Persons in the United States",
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population
Reports, 1955-1980, and 1981 advance report.
75
TABLE B-6
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME WAGE AND SALARY WORKERS
BY AGE AND YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED
ANNUAL AVERAGES 1981
AGE
TOTAL, 16 YRS.
AND
OVER
16
TO
24
YRS.
25
TO
34
YRS.
35
TO
44
YRS.
45
TO
54
YRS.
55
TO
64
YRS.
65
YRS. AND OVER
TOTAL, 25 YRS. AND OVER
8 YRS. OF SCHOOL OR LESS
1 TO 3 YRS. OF HIGH SCHOOL
4 YRS. OF HIGH SCHOOL
1 TO 3 YRS. OF COLLEGE
4 YRS. OF COLLEGE
5 YRS. OF COLLEGE OR MORE
WOMEN' S
MEN
WOMEN
EARNINGS AS
% OF MEN'S
$347
$224
64.6%
$225
$184
81.8%
$346
$242
69.9%
$406
$241
59.4%
$408
$231 ■
56.6%
$386
$227
58.8%
$270
$190
70.4%
$378
$237
62 . 7%
$259
$169
62 . 3%
$314
$187
59.6%
$363
$222
61.1%
$398
$259
65.1%
$459
$299
65 . 3%
$507
$362
71.4%
Source: "Usual Weekly Earnings: Another Look at Intergroup Differences
and Basic Trends", by Earl F. Mellor and George D. Stamas, Monthly Labor
Review, April 1982, p. 16.
TABLE B-7
MONTANA
MEAN WEEKLY EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME* WORKERS
BY AGE AND YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED, 1979
TOTAL, AGE 18 AND OVER
18-24 YRS.
25-34 YRS.
35-44 YRS.
45-54 YRS.
55-64 YRS.
65 YRS. AND OVER
PERSONS AGE 18 AND OVER
8 YRS. OF SCHOOL
1 to 3 YRS. OF HIGH SCHOOL
4 YRS. OF HIGH SCHOOL
1 to 3 YRS. OF COLLEGE
4 YRS. OF COLLEGE
5 to 6 YRS. OF COLLEGE
WOMEN ' S
MEN
WOMEN
EARNINGS AS
% OF MEN'S
$342
$195
57.0%
$220
$159
72.3%
$317
$199
62.8%
$387
$202
52 . 2%
$402
$212
52.7%
$373
$206
55.2%
$283
$163
57.6%
$302
$144
47.7%
$313
$168
53.7%
$319
$182
57.1%
$329
$197
59.8%
$390
$232
59.5%
$406
$273
67.2%
*Full-time- persons who worked 40 or more weeks during 1979 and usually
worked 35 hours or more per week.
Source: Montana 1980 Census, Chapter D.
76
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79
TABLE B-9
MONTANA
MEAN ANNUAL INCOME BY AGE, SEX, AND YEAR OF SCHOOL COMPLETED
1970
TOTAL
ELEM.
HIGH
SCHOOL
COLLEGE
8YRS.
1-3YRS
. 4YRS.
1-3
4YRS.
5 0R>
TOTAL- 18 AND OVER
MALES WITH INCOME
211
813
33,674
32,708
63,390
32
242
13,683
11
203
MEAN INCOME
$6
866
$5,782
$5,969
$7,254
$6
457
$10,014
$12
164
FEMALES WITH INCOME
146
991
17,482
23,054
52,711
28
454
11,364
3
684
MEAN INCOME
$2
706
$1,918
$2,053
$2,704
$2
885
$4,616
$6
062
TOTAL- 18-24 YRS .
MALES WITH INCOME
34
778
793
6,090
13,942
11
257
1,654
472
MEAN INCOME
$3
,040
$3,063
$2,256
$3,407
$2
878
$3,686
$4
723
FEMALES WITH INCOME
28
065
362
4,509
12,328
8
711
1,615
235
MEAN INCOME
$1
790
$1,275
$1,155
$1,800
$1
774
$3,50j
^■J
463
TOTAL 25-34 YRS.
MALES WITH INCOME
39
316
1,963
5,011
15,905
7
377
4,428
3
721
MEAN INCOME
$7
459
$6,122
$6,7 73
$7,500
$7
074
$8,622
$8
853
FEMALES WITH INCOME
O 1
149
886
3,510
9,719
3
955
2,803
795
MEAN INCOME
$2
716
$1,760
$2,039
$2,455
$2
,709
$4,423
$4
648
TOTAL 35-44 YRS.
MALES WITH INCOME
36
658
4,536
5,979
14,161
4
502
2,839
3
083
MEAN INCOME
$9
260
$7,573
$7,849
$9,192
$9
390
$12,677
$13
124
FEMALES WITH INCOME
21
674
1,509
3,630
9,589
3
743
1.897
671
MEAN INCOME
$3
069
$2,136
$2,411
$2,966
?3
256
$4,348
$6
345
TOTAL 45-54 YRS.
MALES WITH INCOME
38
454
6,959
6,400
13,928
4
320
2,352
2
,160
MEAN INCOME
$9
053
$7,173
$7,425
$9,075
$10
300
$13,197
$16
297
FEMALES WITH INCOME
23
167
2 , 549
3,344
') , 6 1 5
4
37')
1 ,7b9
728
MEAN INCOME
$3
b47
$2,558
$2,621
$3,481
$4
325
$5,684
$6
.933
TOTAL 55-64 YRS.
MALES WITH INCOME
31
547
8,835
5,307
7,851
2
736
1,402
1
,118
MEAN INCOME
$7
599
$6,412
$6,878
$8,014
$9
042
12,401
16
,763
FEMALES WITH INCOME
20
186
3,551
3,247
6,059
3
447
1,630
739
MEAN INCOME
$3
434
$2,132
$2,428
$3,580
$3
915
$6,022
$7
682
TOTAL 65 AND OVER
MALES WITH INCOME
31
060
10,588
3,921
3,603
2
050
1,008
649
MEAN INCOME
$4
123
$3,714
$4,234
$4,744
$5
905
$8,263
$10
315
FEMALES WITH INCOME
31
750
8,625
4,814
5,401
4
219
1,650
516
MEAN INCOME
$2
113
$1,646
$1,988
$2,385
$2
682
$3,810
$5
.509
Source: Montana 1970 Census, Chapter D (Table 197)
80
$439
$316
71.8%
$466
$283
60.8%
$366
$190
52.0%
$328
$220
67.0%
$360
$239
66.5%
$298
$187
62.9%
$307
$237
77.2%
$244
$193
79.3%
$180
$146
81.1%
$238
$170
71.3%
-
$104
-
$347
$224
64.7%
TABLE B-10
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS OF WAGE AND SALARY WORKERS
EMPLOYED FULLTIME IN OCCUPATIONS WITH TOTAL EMPLOYMENT
OF 50,000 OR MORE, BY SEX
1981 ANNUAL AVERAGES *
WOMEN'S EARNINGS
OCCUPATION MEN WOMEN AS A % OF MEN'S
Prof ., Tech. , & Kindred Workers
Managers & Admin., except farm
Sales Workers
Clerical & Kindred Workers
Craft & Kindred Workers
Operatives, except transport
Transport Equip. Operators
Nonfarm Laborers
Farmworkers
Service Workers, except
private household
Private Household Workers
TOTAL **
* Excludes any earnings from self -employment .
** Data for total refer to all full-time workers, including
those in occupations not shown.
Source: "Earnings of Men and Women: A Look at Specific Occupations",
by Nancy Rytina, Monthly Labor Review, April 1982, p. 26-29.
TABLE B-11
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN USUAL WEEKLY EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME V/AGE AND SALARY WORKERS
BY OCCUPATION AND SEX
1979 ANNUAL AVERAGES
OCCUPATION
Professional- Technical
Manag . -Admin . , except farm
Sales
Clerical
Craft
Operatives, except transport
Transport Eqviip. Operatives
Nonfarm Laborers
Service $208 $139 66.8%
Farm $163 $130 79.8%
Source: "Perspectives on Working Women: A Databook" , U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, October 1980, p. 49.
WOMEN'S
MEN
WOMEN
EARNINGS AS
% OF MEN'S
$372
$263
70.7%
$399
$235
58.9%
$311
$159
51.1%
$287
$183
63.8%
$310
$188
60.6%
$253
$159
62.8%
$277
$186
67.1%
$213
$159
74.6%
81
TABLE B-12
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS OF FULLTIME WAGE & SALARY WORKERS
BY OCCUPATION AND SEX
4TH QUARTER 1983
OCCUPATION
WOMEN ' S
MEN WOMEN EARNINGS AS A
% OF MEN'S
Managerial & professional spec.
Exec, Admin., & Manag.
Professional Specialty
Technical, Sales, Admin. Support
Technicians, related support
Sales Occupations
Admin. Support, clerical
Service Occupations
Private Household
Protective Service
Other Service
Precision Prod., Craft & Repair
Mechanics & Repairers
Construction Trades
Other Precision Trades
Oper., Fabricators, & Laborers
Machine Operators, Assem. , Inspec
Trans. & Material Moving
Handlers, Equip. Cleaners,
Helpers, & Laborers
Farming, Forestry, & Fishing
$551
$569
$537
$370
$349
$383
67.2%
61.3%
71.2%
$401
$433
$409
$371
$254
$312
$214
$255
63.3%
72 . 1%
52 . 3%
68 . 7%
$264
*
$375
$226
$184
$112
$272
$ 1L6
69 . 7%
72.5%
82 . 3%
$403
$391
$390
$425
$257
$365
*
$244
63 . 8%
93.4%
57.4%
$321
$333
$348
$211
$209
$256
65.7%
62.8%
73.6%
$261
$211
80.8%
$207
$168
81.2%
* Data not shown where base is less than 100,000.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
"Employment and Earnings", Household data, quarterly averages,
March 1984.
82
TABLE B-13
UNITED STATES
OCCUPATIONS WITH HIGHEST MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS FOR PERSONS EMPLOYED
FULL-TIME IN WAGE AND SALARY WORK BY SEX *
1981, Annual Averages
MEN
OCCUPATIONAL TITLE ••" MALE EARNINGS
Aerospace and Astronautical Engineers $619
Stock and Bond Sales Agents 589
Chemical Engineers 583
Economists 580
Lawyers 574
Sales Managers, except retail trade 566
Physicians, medical and ostepathic 561
Electrical and Electronics Engineers 555
Schoo' Administrators, college and university 552
Industrial Engineers 549
Mechanical Engineers 547
Computer Systems Analysts 546
Health Administrators 545
Engineers, not elsewhere classified 530
Airplane pilots 530
School Administrators, elem. and secondary 520
Oper!)tions and Systems Researchers and Analysts 515
Bank Officers and Financial Managers 514
Personnel and Labor Relations Workers 514
Civil Engineers 507
WOMEN
OCCUPATIONAL TITLE FEMALE EARNINGS
Oporatiou:i and Systems Researchers and Analysts •' $422
Computer Systems Analysts 420
Lawyers 407
Physician, Dentists, and related practitioners 401
Social Scientists 391
Teachers, college a;. a university 389
Postal Clerks 382
Engineers 371
Ticket, Station, and Express Agents 370
School Administrators, elem. and secondary 363
Life and Physical Scientists 357
Health Administrators 357
Public Administration Officals and Administrators, n.e.c. 337
Vocational and Educational Counselors 336
Registered Nurses 331
Personnel and Labor Relations Workers 330
Computer Programmers 329
Editors and Reporters 324
Secondary Schoolteachers 321
Librarians 318
Excludes any earnings from self -employment .
"■•'• Occupations listed are those in which the employment for each gender
was 50,000 or more in 1981.
Source: Nancy Rytina, "Earnings of Men and Women: A Look at Specific
Occupations", Monthly Labor Review, April 1982.
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85
WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES **
Some of the most glaring income differences exist for the growing
number of women maintaining families. This is illustrated by TABLE B-24
which looks at median annual income by family type. Not only was female
householder income less than one-half (44.0%) that of all husband-wife
families, but the 1970-81 income growth was lowest for female house-
holders. This is not a wagegap comparison because the income of husband
and wife families may, of course, include the earnings of two people. It
does suggest that female householders are making ends meet for them-
selves and their families with much less. According to the 1980 Census,
the median income of female-headed Montana families was $9,157 or 49.7
percent of the $18,413 median for all families. (TABLE B-25)
By 1983, 16 percent of all U.S. families were maintained by women,
the number having more than doubled since 1940. (TABLE B-23) The charac-
teristics typical of a woman maintaining a family in the United States
today are:
-- She is likely to be divorced.
TABLE B-17
MARITAL STATUS BREAKDOWN OF U.S. WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES (5)
(March 1983)
Divorced 36.8%
Separated 18.6%
Widowed 26.0%
Never married 18.6%
The rising divorce rate, from 1 for every 6 marriages in 1940 to 1
for every 2 marriages in 1980, has changed the picture of the
female head of household. In 1970, 42.8 percent of all women
maintaining families were v/idows (5). By 1983 the percentage had
shrunk to 26 percent and divorcees were the dominant group.
-- She is typically a member of the labor force.
TABLE B-18
LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES, March 1983 (5)
Total No Children Children Children
Under 18 6-17 Under 6
Women maintaining families 59.6% 47.9% 74.2% 55.2%
Never married 55.8% 64.8% 65.5% 44.0%
Separated 62.3% 62.5% 69.2% 53.2%
Widowed 34.3% 20.0% 54.6% *
Divorced 78.2% 76.2% 82.7% 68.5%
* base less than 75,000
** Note: The terminology "women maintaining families" or "female
family householder" is defined as a never-married, divorced,
widowed, or separated woman with no husband present and who is
responsible for her family.
86
WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES, cont.
-- Unemployment rates are higher for female heads of households than
for the general female population.
TABLE B-19
UNEMPLOYMENT RATES, March 1983
Total
No
Children
Children
Children
Under 18
6-17
Under 6
Women maintaining families
14.2%
7.2%
14.6%
23.2%
Never married
20.9%
8.9%
22.6%
32 . 6%
Separated
19.0%
16.2%
17.5%
23.6%
Widowed
34.3%
5.5%
12.6%
*
Divorced
11.5%
4.6%
12.5%
16.2%
* base less than 75,000
Unemployment may be more of a hardship for these women. Only 30%
of female-headed wage earning families were multiple-earner
families, compared to 56% of all married-couple families with
earners. In the first quarter of 1983, 9 percent of unemployed
women maintaining families had a full-time worker in the family,
compared to 16% of all jobless men maintaining families and 41%
of all unemployed husbands. Unemployment in a one-earner female-
headed household in 1981 meant a 50% chance of poverty (6).
-- Her job is likely to be a low-paying, low-skill position.
Most employed women maintaining families (83%) had full-time
jobs m March of 1983.
As with most employed women, the largest proportion of those
maintaining families worked in administrative support occupations.
On the average, those who were divorced differed somewhat in
pattern as they tended to be younger and more educated and so were
more likely to hold managerial and professional positions. They
were also less likely to be employed in service occupations.
-- Her income is likely to be below poverty level.
One out of every three female-headed families lives in poverty,
compared to 1 out of 9 male-headed householders .( 7 ) One-half of
all families in poverty in the United States are headed by women
and these families are 10 times more likely than their male
counterparts to remain poor (8). In Montana during 1979, there
were 19,019 families below the poverty level. Of these families,
13,854 had related children under 18 present. Females (no husband
present) headed 5,483 of these families with children under 18, and
3,074 families had related children under the age of 6. Therefore,
one-third of Montana's families living in poverty with children
under 18 are headed by a female with no husband present.
Women maintaining families have consistently greater poverty
rates than other householders, with blacks and Hispanics of all
household types twice as likely to be poor. (TABLE B-26) Even fully
employed female householders have a poverty rate twice that for
all men and women (TABLE B-27).
87
WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES, cont.
When compared by educational level, families whose female head
had an elementary school education had a poverty rate twice that
for all families with similar schooling. At the high school level,
female-headed poverty rates were 3 times greater and were 4 times
greater for those with 1 year or more of college. (TABLE B-28) This
may be explained by female labor concentration in clerical and
service worker occupations regardless of educational attainment.
-- She is often the mother of children under age 18.
TABLE B-20
PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN WITH CHILDREN UNDER 18, March 1983
Women maintaining families 61.5%
Never married 68.5%
Separated 80.1%
Widowed 20.9%
Divorced 77.2%
The labor force participation rate of mothers with children
ages 6-17 was higher than that for women of all marital groups who
had no children.
The poverty level for female-headed families increases with
the presence of children under age 18. Twenty-nine percent of
their families had below poverty level income in 1982 when the
mother had earnings, 88 percent v/hen she did not. The incidence of
poverty increased with each additional child in the home,
regardless of the mother's earner status--from 37 percent with one
child to 85 percent when four or more children were present (9).
(TABLE B-29 shows 1981 poverty rates by number of children. )
In the state of Montana in 1980, 19,952 families had female house-
holders with no husband present, 65.8 percent of v/hich include children
under the age of 18. Family houseliolder labor force participation rates
and unemployment rates from the Montana 1980 Census are as follov/s:
TABLE B-21
MONTANA HOUSEHOLDER LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES
BY TYPE OF HOUSEHOLDER AND RACE, 1980
Family households
Married couple households
with female head
with male head
Female householder
without children under 18
with children age 6-17
with children under 6
Male householder, no wife
present
Labor
Force
Unemployment
Participation
Rate
Total
Nat . Amer .
Total Nat. Amer
79.5%
70.5%
6.2% 15.1%
51.7%
54.1%
4.7% 12.0%
81.8%
77.4%
6.2% 15.7%
66.0%
57.2%
8.1% 16.2%
49.3%
44.5%
5.3% 15.2%
80.5%
70.5%
6.5% 13.0%
64.4%
53.4%
14.9% 21.9%
78.6%
71.8%
8.7% 7.1%
88
WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES, cont.
Examination of TABLE B-21 reveals several differences between female
householder income and that of all Montana families. Montana female
householders :
-- realized a smaller portion of their total income from wages and
salaries. For female householders with income below the poverty
level, 51.2 percent of aggregate family income came from wage and
salary earnings compared to 58.4 percent in all poverty families
and 71.7 percent in families of all income levels.
-- were less likely to receive income from self-employment.
-- were more likely to receive public assistance income. Five
percent of all families received some income from public
assistance, compared to 19.8 percent of female-headed families.
i:'or families m poverty the percentage was 19.6 for all families
and 39.9 for those with a female householder.
There were 19,019 Montana families with income below the
poverty level in 1980, of which female householder families
accounted for 31.9 percent. Of the 6,072 female-headed households
m po"^o]"ty, 90.3 percent had children under the age of 18. The
labor force status of these women was as follows:
TABLE B-22
POVERTY RATE OF MONTANA FEMALE HOUSEHOLDERS
BY 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS
Native
Total
White
American
15.3%
16.7%
9.1%
full-time
43.8%
45.8%
37.2%
40 . 9%
37.5%
53 . 7%
Worked full-time
Worked less than
Did not work
According to TABLE B-30, Montana 1980 Census poverty rates
were higher for women, for the youngest (16-24 yrs.) and eldest
(65 & over), and for the Native American population, which had an
overall rate more than 3 times that of whites.
TABLES B-32 and B-33 give the number of welfare recipients in
the state of Montana by sex and age. The number of welfare
recipients who applied for Job Service aid, most of whom registered
under the Work Incentive Program, is shown on TABLE A-15.
There are differences when comparing the income profiles for
whites to those for Montana's American Indians. (TABLE B-31) Native
Americans age 65 and over received a higher percentage of their
family income from earnings than did older whites. The percentage
of Indian families receiving public assistance income is greater
for all income levels and is particularly larger for female
householders. For Native American women in poverty 34.8 percent
of their total income originated from public assistance sources,
compared to 24.7 percent of the income of poor white women.
89
TABLE B-23
UNITED STATES
DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY TYPES
FOR SELECTED YEARS, 1940-1983
All
Year *
Families
(number)
1940
32, 166,000
1947
35,794,000
1950
39,303,000
1955
41,957,000
1960
45,062,000
1965
47,836,000
1970
51,227,000
1975
56,257,000
1980
59,910,000
1983
61,834,000
% Married
Maintained
Maintained
Couple Families
by Men
by Women
83.8%
4.9%
11.2%
87.2%
3.3%
9.5%
87 . 6%
3.0%
9.4%
86.7%
3.2%
10.1%
87.2%
2.8%
10.0%
87.1%
2.5%
10.5%
86.7%
2.4%
10.9%
84.5%
2.5%
13.0%
82.0%
3.0%
15.0%
80.8%
3.3%
15.9%
* Data were collected in April of 1940, 1947, and 1955, and in
March of all other years.
Note: Data for 1975 have been revised since initial publication.
Source: Elizabeth V^aldman, "Labor Force Statistics From a Family
Perspective", Monthly Labor Review, December 1983, pg.l7
90
TABLE B-24
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN INCOME BY RACE AND TYPE OF FAMILY
TYPE OF FAMILY
ALL HUSBAND-WIFE FAMILIES
Wife in labor force
FEMALE HOUSEHOLDER, no
husband present*
MALE HOUSEHOLDER,
no wife present
INCREASE
1970
1981
1970-81
$10,516
$25,065
138%
12,276
29,247
138%
5,093
10,960
115%
--
19,889
WHITE FAMILIES
hUSBAND-WIFE FAMILIES
Wife m labor force
FEMALE HOUSEHOLDER, no
husband present
$10,723
12,543
5,754
$25,474
29,713
12,508
138%
137%
117%
MALE HOUSEHOLDER,
no wife present
20,421
BLACK FAMILIES
HUSBAND-WIFE FAMILIES
Wife in labor force
$7,816
$19,624
151%
9,721
25,040
158%
FEMALE HOUSEHOLDER, no
husband present
3,576
7,506
110%
MALE HOUSEHOLDER,
no wife present
14,489
* This item may be read as follows: Median income earnings for female
householder families with no husbands present rose from $5,093 to
$10,960, an increase of 115 percent, between 1970 and 1981.
Source: "A Growing Crisis, Disadvantaged Women and Their Children",
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, May 1983.
91
TABLE B-25
MONTANA
MEDIAN ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME
1979 EARNINGS
BY FAMILY TYPE
FAMILIES
With cliildren under
With children under
MARRIED COUPLE FAMILIES
With children under 18
With children under 5
Vlife in labor force
with children under 18
with children under 6
Wife not in labor force
with children under 18
with children under 6
MALE HOUSEHOLDER, no wife present
with children under 18
with children under 6
FEMALE HOUSEHOLDER, no husband present
With children under 18
With children under 6
In labor force
with children under 18
with children under 6
Not in labor foi.-ce
with children under 18
with children under 6
NUMBER
MEDIAN INCOME
207,525
$18,413
111,969
19,130
52,518
16,832
181,368
$19,558
95,996
20,636
46,994
17,844
86,670
22,223
49,430
22,613
19,935
19,789
94,698
16,676
46,566
18,371
27,059
16,455
6,205
$16,670
2,852
16,302
820
14,261
19,952
$9,157
13,121
7,812
4,704
4,931
13,172
10,092
9,803
8,942
3,031
6,595
6,780
6,864
3,318
4,290
1,673
3,310
Source: Montana 1980 Census, Chapter C (Tables 64 & 71) and
Chapter D (Table 238).
92
TABLE B-26
UNITED STATES
POVERTY RATES BY TYPE OF HOUSEHOLDER
ALL FEMALE HOUSEHOLDERS **
White Female Householders
Black Female Householders
Hispanic Female Householders
ALL MALE HOUSEHOLDERS
White Male Householders
Black Male Householders
Hispanic Male Householders
ALL HUSBAND-WIFE FAMILIES
White
Black
Hispanic
POVERTY RATE
*
1969
1978
1981
32 . 3%
31.4%
34.6%
25.4%
23.5%
27.4%
53.2%
50.6%
52.9%
-
53 . 1%
53.2%
-
5.3%
10.3%
-
4.7%
8.8%
-
11.8%
19.1%
-
-
19.2%
6.9%
5.2%
6.8%
6.0%
4.7%
6.0%
17.8%
11.3%
15.4%
-
-
15.1%
* A poverty rate is the percentage of persons or families whose income
fell below the set poverty level. The poverty level is a
determination of the cost of supporting a family, $10,178 for a
family of 4 in 1983.
** This item may be read as follows: The poverty rates for all
women heading families with no husband present were 34.6% in 1981,
31.4% in 1978, and 32.3% in 1969.
Source: "A Growing Crisis, Disadvantaged Women and Their Children",
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, May 1983.
93
TABLE B-27
UNITED STATES
WOMEN AND MEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES BELOW POVERTY LEVEL, <1> 1980
I Women who | Husbands in| Men who | Total all
Imaintain j nuclear j maintain | men & women
|families<2> families j families<2>
Fully Employed <3> 5.4% 2.6% 2.8% 2.5%
Partially Employed <4> 39.9% 11.0% 20.2% 11-8%
Involuntary Part-Time<5>
Found only part-time 56.6% 26.2% <6> 22.2%
Slack work,
material shortage 28.3% 11-8% 22.0% 11-9%
Unemployed at some
time * 55.6% 14.3% 24.0% 17.5%
Did not work 53.5% 13.7% 21.3% 20.9%
111, Disablea 49.3% 20.8% 24.9% 33.3%
Caring for home 59.4% <6> <6> 18.1%
Student 81.9% 37.7% <6> 20.5%
Unable to find work 85.1% 53.4% <6> 44.7%
Retired 11-1% 7.9% 11.3% 13.5%
* This item may be read as follows: Of all persons who were unemployed
at some time during 1980, 17.5 percent were in poor families. Of women
who maintained families alone and experienced unemployment, 55.6 percent
were poor, compared to 24.0 percent of men who maintained families
alone .
<1> After inclusion of cash transfers and excluding in-kind
transfers such as food stamps and housing.
<2> Men and women maintaining families have no spouse present.
<3> Persons who worked 50-52 v"=^eks of the year usu. at a full-time job.
<4> Less than 50 wks . per year or 50-52 wks . part-time.
<5> Persons who worked less than 35 hours for at least 1 week during
the year (a)because they could only find part-time work or (b)
because of the slack work or material shortages.
<6> Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
Source: "A Growing Crisis, Disadvantaged Women and Their Children",
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, May 1983.
94
TABLE B-28
UNITED STATES
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AND POVERTY, 1981
ALL FAMILIES
ALL RACES
WHITE
BLACK
SPANISH
ORIGIN
ELEMENTARY( < 8 yrs . ) 25.0%
21.1%*
39.7%
35.0%
HIGH SCHOOL( 4 yrs.) 9.5%
7.5%
26.0%
15.7%
COLLEGE( 1 yr. or more) 4.1%
3.4%
12 . 4%
7.7%
FEMALE-HEADED
FAMILIES
ALL RACES
WHITE
BLACK
SPANISH
ORIGIN
ELEMENTARY ( < 8 yrs.) 48.8%
44.3%
56.5%
61.9%
HIGH SCHOOL( 4 yrs.) 27.8%
21.5%
48.0%
34.5%
COLLEGE( 1 yr. or more) 16.6%
13.9%
26.8%
27.6%
* The figures in this column can be interpreted as follows: The pro-
portion of white families (both male and female headed) in poverty is
21.1 percent when the head of household has less than 8 years of educa-
tion, decreasing to 7.5 and 3.4 percent, respectively, for higher levels
of education.
TABLE B-29
UNITED STATES
POVERTY RATES FOR FEMALE HOUSEHOLDERS, 1981
WHITE FEMALE HEAD
No earners
Head only earner
BLACK FEMALE HEAD
No earners*
Head only earner*
HISPANIC FEMALE HEAD
No earners
Head only earner
NO CHILDREN
ONE
TWO
THREE
UNDER 18
CHILD
CHILDREN
CHILDREN
12.7%
31.3%
38.8%
58.8%
26.9%
86.0%
89.1%
92.9%
11.5%
25.1%
27.3%
47 . 5%
35.8%
45.1%
61.2%
72.6%
66.2%
88.7%
96.0%
97.7%
37.1%
26.4%
42.1%
57.2%
30.5%
47.8%
60.1%
76.8%
64.0%
<1>
<1>
<1>
25.0%
30.4%
<1>
<1>
* This item may be read as follows: In 1981 black women maintaining
their own families who had no children under the age of 18 in the home
had a poverty rate of 66.2 percent if no one in the household was
employed and 37.1 percent if the female head was the only person em-
ployed.
<1> Percentage not given when base is less than 75,000.
Source: "A Growing Crisis, Disadvantaged Women and Their Children",
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, May 1983.
95
TABLE B-30
MONTANA
PERSONS 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER
WITH 1979 INCOME BELOW POVERTY LEVEL
BY SEX, AGE, AND RACE
TOTAL INCOME BELOW POVERTY LEVEL
Number Percent
TOTAL PERSONS
16 +
567,
711
65,365
11
5%
16-24 yrs.
124,
762
20,896
16
8%
25-54 yrs.
292,
443
26,294
9
0%
55-64 yrs.
71
319
6,761
9
5%
65 and over
79,
187
11,414
14
4%
TOTAL FEMALE
16 +
287,
679
38,097
13
2%
16-24 yrs.
62,
196
11,746
18
9%
25-54 yrs.
145,
317
14,791
10
2%
55-64 yrs.
36,
244
3,974
11
0%
65 and over
43,
922
7,586
17
3%
WHITE- TOTAL
16 +
540
300
56,919
10
5%
16-24 yrs.
116
042
17,594
15
2%
25-54 yrs.
277
772
22,453
8
1%
55-64 yrs.
69
299
6, 159
8
9%
65 and over
77
187
10,713
13
9%
WHITE- FEMALE
16 +
273
399
33,310
12
2%
16-24 yrs.
57
850
10,022
17
3%
25-54 yrs.
137
490
12,488
9
1%
55-64 yrs.
35
187
3,625
10
3%
65 and over
42
872
7, 175
16
7%
AMER. INDIAN-
TOTAL 16+
22
341
7,206
32
3%
16-24 yrs.
7
278
2,837
39
0%
25-54 yrs.
11
790
3,248
27
6%
55-64 yrs.
1
605
476
29
7%
65 and over
1
668
645
38
7%
AMER. INDIAN-
FEMALE 16
+ 11
693
4, 127
35
3%
16-24 yrs.
3
678
1,490
40
5%
25-54 yrs.
6
283
1,986
31
6%
55-64 yrs.
835
272
32
6%
65 and over
897
379
42
3%
Source: Montana 1980 Census, Chapter D (Table 245)
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July
1982
July
1983
July
1984
FEMALE
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
9
26
12
20
10
27
418
74
346
60
401
52
569
36
766
47
897
49
3,920
199
4,807
247
5,109
302
TABLE B-32
MONTANA
AFDC RECIPIENTS BY SEX AND CATEGORY OF PAYEE *
for the month of July 1982, 1983, 1984
PAYEE NOT INCLUDED **
Incapacitation
Other reason
PAYEE INCLUDED **
With income
Without income
TOTAL 4,916 335 5,931 374 6,417 430
* Aid to Families with Dependent Children- Monthly grants to provide
day-to-day requirements of low income children m need because of the
absence or incapacitation of a parent.
** The first category consists of cases in which the AFDC check
does not include funds for the payee. The second category deals
with the number of single parents receiving monies for themselves
and their children.
TABLE B-33
STATE MED I CADE RECIPIENTS BY SEX AND AGE #
State Fiscal Year 1981
MALE FEMALE
AGE
0-5 yrs. 8,235 7,968
6-14 yrs. 7,804 7,721
15-20 yrs. 2,650 5,400
21-25 yrs. 1,521 5,706
26-30 yrs. 947 2,767
31-64 yrs. 4,330 8,160
65-70 yrs. 1,232 1,681
71-80 yrs. 1,972 2,892
81 and over 2,894 5,975
TOTAL 31,587 48,272
TOTAL, including Unborn 81,317
# Includes Aid to Families of Dependent Children and Medicade
recipients .
Source: Montana Department of Social and Rehabilitative Services.
100
FOOTNOTES FOR INCOME SECTION
(l)EARL F. MELLOR, "INVESTIGATING THE DIFFERENCES IN WEEKLY EARNINGS OF
WOMEN AND MEN", MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW, JUNE 1984, P. 17.
(2)MELL0R, P. 24.
(3)MELL0R, P. 26
(4) SUSAN FRAKER, "WHY WOMEN AREN'T GETTING TO THE TOP", FORTUNE,
APRIL 16, 1984, P . 43 .
(5)BEVERLY L. JOHNSON AND ELIZABETH WALDMAN, "MOST WOMEN WHO MAINTAIN
FAMILIES RECEIVE POOR LABOR MARKET RETURNS", MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,
DECEMBER 1983, P. 31.
(6)SYLVIA LAZOS TERRY, "WORK EXPERIENCE, EARNINGS, AND FAMILY INCOME IN
1981" MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW, APRIL 1983.
(7)"V70MEN WHO HEAD FAMILIES: EMPLOYMENT PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES",
EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 1979, P. 95.
(8)EC0N0MIC OPPORTUNITY REPORT, CONFERENCE REPORT, JUNE 18, 1984, P. 8.
(9) JOHNSON AND WALDMAN, P. 33.
(10) MARY TUTHILL, "OUT OF THE KITCHEN, INTO THE WORK FORCE", NATION'S
BUSINESS, MARCH 2 981, P . 80.
(ll)NETWORK NEWS, DISPLACED HOMEMAKER NETVJORK, JUNE 1979
101
^
c^mm €
EDUCATION
103
55.6%
62 . 7%
12.7%
9.3%
72.8%
75.9%
20.1%
14.9%
EDUCATION
In the United States the median years of school completed was 12.6
for both sexes in 1979. In that year, 14.9 percent of women in the
labor force had completed 4 or more years of college, compared to 19.6
percent of men in the labor force. Median educational attainment in
Montana in 1980 was also 12.6 years, up from 12.3 in 1970.
MONTANA
PERCENTAGE OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE GRADUATES
(persons age 25 & over)
% Completed % With 4 or More
High School Years of College
Males Females Males Females
1970 Census
1980 Census
Enrollment
TABLES C-1 and C-3 present a look at college enrollment in the
United States. Since 1955 the percentage of women has grown from 38.7
percent to slightly over half of enrollees. The selected major fields
of study shown give a progress report on some non- traditional areas for
women. In 1980, 12.6 percent of engineering students were female, as
were 25.7 percent of those studying medicine and 30.5 percent of those
enrolled in architecture and environmental design.
The sex distribution of those enrolled in Montana's institutions of
higher education is as follows:
MONTANA
COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT
Females as a
Male Female % of Total
1979 15,669 15,229 49.3%
1980 17,088 16,751 49.5%
1982 18,367 17,652 48.9%
1983 18,805 18,516 49.6%
A sex breakdown of older students (TABLE C-2) shows an even higher
percentage of women. Of 1980 college enrollees age 45 and over, 65.9
percent were women.
Earned Degrees
In June of 1982, for the first time in 36 years, women received
over one-half (50.3%) of all U.S. bachelor's degrees. Although female
enrollment has exceeded that for males since 1979, National Center for
Education Statistics records dating back to 1870 report more bachelor's
degrees awarded to women only three times prior to 1982. This occurred
during the war-related years of 1944, 1945, and 1946.
A twenty year comparison, illustrated by GRAPH C-I, indicates that
women received two-fifths of bachelor's degrees in 1962 and one-half in
1982. One-third of master's degrees in 1962 and over one-half in 1982
went to women. Growth is even more pronounced at doctorate and profes-
sional levels. The proportion of female recipients multiplied 3 times
for doctoral degrees and nine times for first-professional degrees.
105
EDUCATION, cont.
The proportions of Montana graduates who are female are as follows:
MONTANA
WOMEN AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL DEGREE RECIPIENTS
1965-66
1974-75
1982-83
Total
36.9%
40.9%
46 . 5%
Bachelor ' s
40.4%
44.0%
47.4%
Master' s
15.8%
29.1%
44.8%
1st Prof.
3.1%
11.5%
29.5%
Doctoral
6.5%
9.9%
21.6%
The numbers of bachelor's, master's, and do
U.S. men and women in 1980 are listed by field o
The highest percentage of women were found in tr
fields such as education, library science, home
professions. The fields graduating the lowest p
engineering, military science, and the physical
take advantage of increasing educational opportu
are expanding into all curriculum areas. From 1
portion of women earning degrees in medicine inc
25 percent, and from 7 percent to 32 percent in
ctoral degrees awarded
f study in TABLE C-5.
aditionally feminine
economics, and health
roportion of women were
sciences. As women
nities, however, they
970 to 1980, the pro-
reased from 9 percent to
the legal profession.
The HEGIS* Earned Degree Summary (TABLE C-6) gives a sex breakdown
of Montana graduates by field of study and type of degree. The follow-
ing is a summary of selected fields for all degrees, drawn from that
table .
MONTANA 1982-83 GRADUATES
(All degrees included)
SELECTED FIELDS
Agriculture & Natural Resources
Business & Management
Computer & Information Sciences
Education
Engineering
Health Science & Allied Health
Home Economics
Law
Life Sciences
Mathematics
Psychology
Social Sciences
WOMEN
Number
% of Total
132
32.2%
381
43 . 2%
20
28.2%
668
64 . 5%
65
10.5%
323
86.6%
75
97.4%
29
34.5%
99
46.7%
32
37.2%
50
56.8%
135
41.5%
*HEGIS- Higher Education General Information Survey, an annual survey
of fall enrollment, tuition, and finances of all two and four year
public and private colleges and universities.
106
EDUCATION, cont.
Placement
Although educational advancement has affected the occupational
profile of women, family responsibi li tes may place limitations on a
female college graduate's job search which are not a problem for males.
A 1982 survey by the National Science Foundacion round that women con-
stituted 13 percent of the science and engineering work force, which is
double the percentage of a decade ago . ( 1 ) Yet, in spite of these gains,
women in science have significantly higher unemployment rates than their
male counterparts. In his analysis of the survey, Michael Finn of Oak
Ridge Associated Universities suggests that the higher unemployment
rates are due to women's job search restrictions on geographic location,
family responsibility, or a need for part-time employment.
In general, Montana female graduates in all areas of study found
employment at an equivalent rate to males. Placement information by
sex and field of study for Montana graduates is located m APPENDIX B.
Students in the Labor Force
About 29 percent of high school students and 40 percent of full-
time college students had jobs in October 1983, most of whom were em-
ployed in the trade or service industries. High school students worked
an average of nearly 14 hours per week, and full-time college students
worked 18 hours weekly. Since 1970, the trend has been for the working
hours of women to rise while those of men have remained the same. The
average hours worked by full-time college women have increased by more
than 3 hours since 1967.
HOURS WORKED IN NON-AG INDUSTRIES
OCTOBER 1983
BY PERSONS AGE 16-24 (2)
TOTAL AT WORK
Percent
1-14 hours
15-21 hours
22-3 4 hours
3 5 hours & over
AVERAGE HOURS
Total
Men
Women
High School
Students
2,836,000
100.0%
57.2%
28.6%
9.9%
4.3%
13.6
14.3
13.0
Ful 1-time
College Students
2, 509,000
100.0%
33.8%
38.5%
18.2%
9.5%
18.2
19.6
17.6
107
TABLE C-1
UNITED STATES
TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
BY SEX OF STUDENT, FALL 1965- FALL 1980
TOTAL
WOMEN AS %
YEAR
ENROLLMENT
MEN
WOMEN
OF TOTAL
1965
5,920,864
3,
630,
,020
2,290,844
38.7%
1966
6,389,872
3,
856,
216
2,533,656
39.7%
1967
6,911,748
4,
, 132,
,800
2,778,948
40.2%
1968
7,513,091
4,
,477,
,649
3,035,442
40 . 4%
1969
8,004,660
4,
,746,
,201
3,258,459
40.7%
1970
8,580,887
5,
,043,
,642
3,537,245
41.2%
1971
8,948,644
5,
,207,
,004
3,741,640
41.8%
1972
9,214,860
5,
,238,
,757
3,976, 103
43.2%
1973
9,602, 123
5,
,371,
,052
4,231,071
44 . 1%
1974
10,223,729
5,
,622,
,429
4,601,300
45.0%
1975
11, 184,859
6,
, 148,
,997
5,035,862
45.0%
1976
11,012,137
5,
,810,
,828
5,201,309
47.2%
1977
11,285,787
5,
,789,
,016
5,496,771
48.7%
1978
11,260,092
5,
,640,
,998
5,619,094
49.9%
1979
11,569,899
5,
,682,
,877
5,887,022
50.9%
1980
12,096,895
5,
,874,
,374
6,222,521
51.4%
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, "Earned Degrees Conferred", 1980.
TABLE C-2
MONTANA
NUMBER ENROLLED IN COLLEGE BY AGE AND SEX, 1980
TOTAL
WOMEN
Age
Number
%
25-29 yrs.
5,297
2,
,276
43 . 0%
30-34 yrs.
2,927
1,
,381
47 . 2%
35-39 yrs.
1,504
896
59.6%
40-44 yrs.
887
437
49.3%
45-54 yrs.
828
530
64.0%
55-64 yrs.
336
228
67.6%
65 yrs. &
over
260
181
69 . 6%
TOTAL ALL ,
AGES
35,875
Age 25 and
over
33.6%
Age 45 and
over
4.0%
TOTAL AGE 45 & OVER 1,424
Women 939 65.9%
Source: Montana 1980 Census, Chapter D.
108
TABLE C-3
UNITED STATES
TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
IN SELECTED MAJOR FIELDS OF STUDY BY SEX
FALL 1978 AND 1980
SELECTED MAJOR FIELDS OF STUDY
1978
TOTAL
Agriculture & Natural Resources
Architecture & Environmental Design
Biological Sciences
Business & Management
Dentistry
Engineering
Law
Medicine
Physical Sciences
Veterinary Medicine
All Ocher
1980
TOTAL
Agriculture & Natural Resources
Architecture & Environmental Design
Biological Sciences
Business & Management
Dentistry
Engineering
Lav/
Medicine
Physical Sciences
Veterinai-y Medicine
All Other
TOTAL
WOMEN
Number
%
11
257
111
5,618,140
49
9%
145
784
42,312
29
0%
66
105
17,334
26
2%
294
433
129,193
43
9%
1
475
530
574,617
38
9%
21
793
3,058
14
0%
517
935
55,121
10
6%
118
420
36,024
30
4%
66
713
15,472
23
2%
163
554
40, 191
24
6%
7
186
2,424
33
7%
8
379
657
4,702,394
56
1%
12
096
895
6,222,521
51
4%
143
902
45,861
31
9%
74
611
22,727
30
5%
270
419
127,783
47
3%
1
661
705
742,348
44
7%
22
668
3,856
17
0%
616
234
77,414
12
6%
118
993
40,424
34
0%
74
132
19,072
25
7%
173
356
47,765
27
6%
8
164
3,184
39
0%
8
932
71_ 1
5,092,087
57
0%
Source(both Tables): U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, "Earned Degrees Conferred", 1980
109
TABLE C-4
UNITED STATES
EARNED DEGREES CONFERRED BY TYPE OF DEGREE AND SEX OF RECIPIENT
BACHELOR'S DEGREES
SELECTED
YEARS
Women
Men
Women as %
of total
1966
223,066
301,051
42 . 6%
1968
274,607
357,682
43.4%
1970
341,219
451,097
43 . 1%
1972
386,683
500,590
43 . 6%
1976
420,821
504,925
45.8%
1977
424,004
495,545
46 . 1%
1978
439,135
491,066
47.2%
1979-1980
473,417
455,806
50.9%
FIRST PROFESSIONAL
DEGREES*
Women
Men
Women as %
of total
1966
1,425
30,071
4.5%
1968
1,596
32,825
4.6%
1970
1,841
33,077
5.3%
1972
2,688
40,723
6.2%
1976
9,757
52,892
15.6%
1977
11,985
52,374
18.6%
1978
14,411
52,553
21.5%
1979-1980
17,415
52,716
24.8%
MASTER'S
DEGREES
Women
Men
Women as %
of total
1966
47,588
93, 184
33.8%
1968
63,230
113,519
35.8%
1970
82,667
125,624
39.7%
1972
102,083
149,550
40.6%
1976
144,523
167,248
46 . 4%
1977
149,381
167,783
47.1%
1978
151, 108
161,708
48.3%
1979-1980
147, 332
150,749
49.4%
DOCTORAL
DEGREES
Women
Men
Women as %
of total
1966
2, 118
16,121
11.6%
1968
2,906
20, 183
12.6%
1970
3,976
25,890
13.3%
1972
5,273
28,090
15.8%
1976
7,797
26,267
22.9%
1977
8,090
25, 142
24.3%
1978
8,487
23,669
26.4%
1979-1980
9,672
22,943
29.7%
* First Professional Degree signifies both completion of academic
requirements and a level of skill beyond normal reqviirement for a
bachelor's degree, usu. at least 2 years of higher education before
entering the program and a final total of at least 6 years. Examples;
dentistry, veterinary medicine, law.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, "Earned Degrees Conferred", 1980.
1 1 n
TABLE C-5
UNITED STATES
BACHELOR'S, MASTER'S AND DOCTOR'S DEGREES CONFERRED
BY INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY SEX OF STUDENT AND
BY FIELD OF STUDY, 1979-80
BACHELOR'S (4-5yrs.)
FIELD OF STUDY
ALL FIELDS
Ag. & Natural Resources
Architecture <&
Environmental Design
Area Studies
Biological Sciences
Business & Management
Communications
Computer & Info Science
Education
Engineering
Fine & Applied Arts
Foreign Languages
Health Professions
Home Economics
Law
Letters
Library Science
Mathematics
Military Sciences
Physical Sciences
Psychology
Public Affairs & Services
Social Sciences
Theology
Interdisciplinary Studies
ALL FIELDS
Ag. & Natural Resources
Architecture &
Environmental Design
Area Studies
Biological Science
Business & Management
Communications
Computer & Info Science
Education
Engineering
Fine & Applied Arts
Foreign Languages
Health Professions
Home Economics
Law
Letters
Total
Women
Women as %
of total
929,417
455,806
49.0%
22,802
6,757
29.6%
9, 132
2,536
27.8%
2,489
1,506
60 . 5%
46,370
19,542
42.1%
186,683
62,719
33.6%
28,616
14,960
52.3%
11, 154
3,372
30.2%
118, 102
87,206
73.8%
68,893
6,405
9.3%
40,892
25,827
63.2%
11, 133
8,402
75.5%
63,920
52,529
82.2%
18,411
17,550
95.3%
683
311
45 . 5%
40,633
24,108
59 . 3%
398
378
95.0%
11,378
4,816
42.3%
251
10
4.0%
23,410
5,546
23.7%
41,962
26,543
63 . 3%
37,555
20,631
54.9%
103,870
45,294
43 . 6%
6,207
1,582
25.5%
34,473
17,276
50.1%
MASTER'S DEGREES
Total
Women
Women as %
of total
298,081
147,332
49 . 4%
3,082
894
22.5%
3, 139
894
28.5%
772
403
47.8%
6,510
2,412
37.1%
55, 148
12,305
22.3%
3,082
1,555
50.5%
3,647
764
21.0%
103,453
72,578
70 . 2%
16,243
1,142
7.0%
8,708
4,641
53.3%
2,236
1,570
70.2%
15,704
11,347
72.3%
2,690
2,456
91.3%
1,817
286
15.7%
8,509
5,140
60.4%
111
U.S. EARNED DEGREES CONFERRED BY FIELD, TABLE C-5, cont.
MASTER'S DEGREES, cont.
Library Science
Mathematics
Military Science
Physical Sciences
Psychology
Public Affairs & Services
Social Sciences
Theology
Interdisciplinary Studies
Total
Women
Women as %
of total
5,374
4,370
81.3%
2,860
1,032
36.1%
46
0
0
5,219
971
18.6%
7,806
4,430
56.8%
20,087
10,463
52 . 1%
12,181
4,396
36.1%
3,922
1,217
31.0%
4,952
2,091
42.2%
DOCTORAL DEGREES
ALL FIELDS
Ag. & Natural Resources
Architecture &
Environmental Design
Area Studies
Biological Sciences
Business & Management
Communications
Computer & Infor Science
Educations
Engineering
Fine & Applied Arts
Foreign Languages
Health Professions
Home Economics
Law
Letters
Library Science
Mathematics
Military Science
Physical Sciences
Psychology
Public Affairs & Services
Social Sciences
Theology
Interdisciplinary Studies
Total
Women
Women as %
of total
22,943
9,672
29.7%
991
112
11.3%
79
13
16.5%
145
50
34.5%
3,636
946
26.0%
796
115
14.5%
193
72
37.3%
240
27
11.3%
7,940
3,521
44.4%
2,507
95
3.8%
655
2 42
37.0%
549
315
57.4%
786
351
44.7%
192
146
76.0%
40
4
10.0%
1,875
768
41.0%
73
38
52 . 1%
724
100
13.8%
3,089
384
12 . 4%
2,768
1,166
42 . 1%
392
138
35.2%
3,225
874
37.2%
1,319
77
5.8%
401
118
29.4%
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, "Earned Degrees Conferred", 1980.
112
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GRAPH C-I
PERCENT OF EfiffCD DEGREES RECEIVED BY WGTtN IN IJ«TED STATES
1962, 1972, AND 1982
PERCENT
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
;-'•s^X?>^L
'62 '72 '82
BACHELOR'S
DEGREES
"62 "72 "82
MASTER'S
DEGREES
62 '72 '82
DOCTOR'S
DEGREES
•62 "72 "82
IST-PROFESSIONAL
DEGREES
SOURCE: U.S. DEPART. OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STAISTICS
FOOTNOTES FOR EDUCATION
(l)"Economic Diary", Business Week, May 21, 1984, p. 24.
(2) Anne McDougall Young, "Fewer Students in Work Force as School Age
Population Declines", Monthly Labor Review, July 1984.
119
121
OLDER WORKERS *
In 1982, the Bureau of the Census estimated the United States pop-
ulation at 232 million, of whom 48 million were age 55 and over. Of the
26 million who were at least 65 years old, 60 percent were women. (1) It
is predicted that, by the year 2000, one person out of every 14 in the
U.S. population will be a women age 65 or over. (2)
Today's woman age 65 or over:
-- probably lives alone or with a nonrelative. Over 60 percent of
older women live alone, compared to less than 20 percent of older
men. It is sometimes assumed that a large proportion of the
elderly live in institutions. Only 5% of the U.S. population age
65 & over are living in institutions, 95 percent of whom are in
homes for the aged or in nursing homes. According to the 1980
Montana Census, only 4.1% of males and 6.8 percent of females age
65 and over were in homes for the aged. Both nationally and in the
State, two-thirds of the institutionalized elderly are female.
-- has at least 8 years of formal schooling. The educational level of
the older population is rising rapidly. In 1975 the median number
of school years completed was 10.7 for women who reached age 65
during that year, compared to 8.9 for those over age 65 who died
during the year. (2) These women also have a wealth of informal
education and are highly flexible due to frequent role changes
throughout their lives.
-- has lower income (TABLES B-3 and B-6). Median weekly earnings
begin to drop at age 55 and go down a great deal for individuals
age 65 and over. (TABLE B-6) The same pattern exists for hourly
earnings. (TABLE B-3)
-- has a higher incidence of poverty (TABLE B-30). Almost 20 percent
of U.S. women 65 and over live in poverty. (3) Poverty rates
in 1980 were higher for older Montanans of both sexes and all
races with an overall rate of 11.5% and a rate of 14.4% for those
age 65 and over.
-- is not limited by physical handicaps. A 1972 health survey
reported that 80 percent of the elderly questioned claimed no
chronic limitations of their physical mobility. (2) In a recent
Montana study of the problems of the elderly only 14 percent of
those surveyed felt that health was their most serious problem. (4)
The stereotype that older individuals are "sick, poor, enfeebled, iso-
lated and desolated" is simply fallacious. The older population in the
U.S. increasingly consists of healthy, educated, non-poor women who are
not employed and not living with a spouse. (5)
*N0TE: There is no universal definition used in determining the dividing
line between "younger" and "older" workers. U.S. antidiscrimination law
uses age 40. For the Bureau of Labor Statistics the cutoff age for
prime age workers is 54, and others consider those age 45 and over to be
older workers.
123
OLDER WORKERS, cont.
Fourteen percent of the 1982 U.S. labor force was made up of indi-
viduals age 55 and over, with 2.7 percent of the labor force being age
65 and over. The 1983 civilian labor force participation rate for U.S.
persons age 55 and over is 31.4 percent overall, 43.0 percent for males,
and 22.4 percent for females. (TABLE A-3) Montana Census figures show
the 1980 CLE participation rate as 32.9 percent overall, and 22.0 per-
cent for women (age 55 and over). Current Population Survey numbers
place Montana participation rates as follows (see TABLE D-3):
MONTANA 1980 LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES
All Races overall females
age 45-54 74.8% 59.2%
55-64 55.0% 39.8%
65 & over 16.5% 9.3%
In 1981, about 1.9 million older persons worked full-time (two-
thirds working 50 to 52 weeks), most of whom were males. Approximately
38 percent of older workers were women, most of whom worked part-time.
The frequent choice of part-time employment by older women is attributed
to their discouragement in finding opportunities for full-time work
rather than a preference for part-time employment .( 6)
Workers age 65 and over are concentrated in a small number of ind-
dustries and occupations. Almost two-thirds of older men are employed
in either the trade or service industries, compared to less than 40 per-
cent of other age group employees. Occupationally, older workers are
found primarily as managers and administrators, professional and tech-
nical workers, service workers, and farmers. They are underepresented
as craft and kindred v/orkers, operatives, sales workers and clerical
personnel. Older workers often have jobs which are not full-time, year-
around employment such as small farmers, private household workers, and
service workers. They are often self-employed, which allows for flexi-
ble schedules and part-time work. (7)
Unemployment rates for older men were higher than those for other
age groups prior to the late 1960's. (see TABLE D-4) The reversal of
this trend, lower unemployment rates for older men, does not necessarily
indicate a brighter employment picture for this age group. It is more
likely a reflection of a lesser effect of recent recession on jobs of
older workers. Older men are not usually employed in industries which
are hard-hit by economic recession, such as durable goods manufacturing
or construction. They may be better protected from a layoff by
seniority or find that retirement is a viable alternative to searching
for another position.
Women age 25 to 54 have higher unemployment rates than older women
in the labor force. This is the result of younger women's higher pro-
pensity to job loss, quitting a current job, and to reentry of the job
market. Older unemployed women are more likely to become discouraged
and withdraw from the labor force.
124
OLDER WORKERS, cont.
Adding all discouraged workers to the unemployment rate greatly
alters the differences between the rates of older and younger workers.
As shown by TABLE D-4, discouragement is particularly a problem for
older workers. When compared to men, labor market discouragement is
more common to women of all ages. For women age 25-54, discouragement
adds 1.1 percentage points to the unemployment rate, and for those 55
to 64 the unemployment-discouragement rate is 1.5 percent higher. The
unemployment rate for women age 55 and over more than doubled when dis-
couraged workers were added. TABLE D-6 looks at reasons for job search
discouragement by sex and age. For persons age 50 and over, the great-
est obstacle appears to be the belief that employers will think they are
too old.
Older women seeking employment often encounter a combination of sex
and age discrimination. Stereotypeing of older workers is a factor in
age discrimination. A study by the Work in America Institute found
these traits in workers age 50 and older:
-- They have fewer absences than younger workers.
-- They have fewer on-the-job accidents.
-- They are more satisfied with their jobs.
-- They have less stress on the job than younger workers. (8)
In applying for work, older women find themselves in a Catch-22.
Women with valuable job experience may be turned down because of over-
qualification, especially if the employer prefers someone he/she can pay
minimum wage. Displaced Homemakers face the problem of a lack of paid
work experience, with little or no value given to skills acquired
through unpaid work.
About 50 percent of all working v;omen are in jobs that do not have
a pension plan. (9) Those with pension coverage on their longest-held
job may not work long enough to collect those benefits. Career inter-
ruptions because of family responsibilities, both child-rearing and care
for aging or elderly family members, jepardize the acquistion of a pen-
sion upon retirement. Women received 55.4 percent of federal
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits in September of 1983.
(TABLE D-7) Of those eligible for benefits because of old age,
73.8 percent were women.
There are several programs in the state designed especially to
utilize the special skills and energies of older individuals: Senior
Community Service Employment Program (SCSEP), Foster Grandparents, and
Senior Companions.
The Senior Community Service Employment Program has been operative
in Montana since 1970. Green Thumb, Inc. in Great Falls handled its
operation originally and still employs seniors in 51 Montana counties.
The current enrollment on March 30, 1984 was 284, two-thirds of whom
are women. The American Association of Retired Persons in Billings
deals with older workers in Yellowstone, Carbon, Big Horn, Rosebud, and
Custer counties. As of May 7, 1984, the AARP program had 50 enrollees;
18 men and 42 women.
125
OLDER WORKERS, cont.
Green Thumb Inc. is a non-profit organization set up by the
National Farmers Union and funded under Title V of the Older Americans
Act. Its objective is the provision of part-time public service jobs for
state residents over age 55 with limited income (annual income at or
below 125 percent of the Department of Labor poverty guidelines, or a
recipient of cash welfare or destitution payments). Work assignments
must contribute to and be geared to meet community needs. The program
also provides training and assistance in obtaining non-Green Thumb
employment and must place at least 15 percent of its participants into
jobs outside the organization. TABLE D-9 gives a picture of the types
of Green Thumb jobs and enrollee characteristics.
Participants in the Foster Grandparent or the Senior Companionship
program must be age 60 or over and meet federal low-income requirements.
They may work 20 hours per week and receive a $2.00 per hour stipend.
As of July 1984, there were 183 Foster Grandparents and 78 Senior Com-
panions in the Montana, 80 percent of whom were women.
Foster Grandparents work v;ith children with special needs. They
offer much needed aid and attention to persons up to age 21 in pediatric
wards, special education classes, shelters, and institutions such as the
Boulder River School and Hospital. The program has projects in Glen-
dive, Billings, Fort Belnap, Helena, Great Falls, Boulder, Butte, and
Missoula .
The purpose of the Senior Companion program is to help its clien-
tele, most of whom are elderly, to stay out of institutions. This is
done both by meeting needs such as providing transportaion or checking
on medications, and by encouraging self-sufficiency. The project is
operating in Helena, Augusta, Whitehall, Townsend, Livingston, Boulder,
and Bozeman.
126
TABLE D-1
UNITED STATES
CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE BY AGE
DISTRIBUTION OF CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE
AGE
16-24 yrs.
25-34 yrs.
35-44 yrs,
45-54 yrs.
55-64 yrs,
65 & OVER
1975
1980
1985
1990
22.0%
25.1%
24.4%
22.6%
22.3%
30.4%
32.9%
35.0%
16.8%
21.2%
25.9%
31.3%
17.1%
17.0%
16.9%
19 . 3%
11.2%
12.0%
11.8%
11.1%
2.9%
3.0%
3.0%
3.1%
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
TABLE D-2
UNITED STATES
EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATION, 1981
OCCUPATION
ALL OCCUPATIONS
DISTRIBUTION (%)
PROFESSIONAL-TECH.
MANAGERS -ADMIN.
SALES
CLERICAL
CRAFTSWORKERS
OPERATIVES
NONFARM LABORERS
PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD
SERVICE
FARMWORKERS
65 YRS.
ALL AGES
119,000
107,347,000
100.0%
100.0%
13.3%
15.7%
13.2%
11.2%
10.3%
6.2%
14.1%
18.3%
7.3%
12.8%
8.9%
14.4%
3.9%
4.7%
4.1%
1-2%
16.3%
13.0%
8.6%
2.4%
Source: Malcolm Morrison, "Aging of the U.S. Population: Human Resource
Implications", Monthly Labor Review, May 1983, p. 18.
127
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128
TABLE D-4
UNITED STATES
OFFICIAL UNEMPLOYMENT RATE AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATE INCLUDING
DISCOURAGED WORKERS, BY SEX AND AGE, 1968-1981
(Annual Averages)
YEAR
25-54
• yrs.
55-64
yrs
65 &
over
U *
U+D **
U
U+D
U
U+D
WOMEN
Total ***
5.5%
6.6%
3.4%
4.9%
3.6%
8.2%
1968
3.4%
4.5%
2.2%
4.2%
2.7%
8.6%
1969
3.5%
4.4%
2.2%
3.5%
2.3%
7.4%
1970
4.5%
5.5%
2.7%
4.1%
3.1%
7.3%
1971
5.3%
6.7%
3.3%
4.7%
3.6%
7.9%
1972
4.9%
6.2%
3.3%
4.8%
3.5%
7.8%
1973
4.4%
5.5%
2.8%
4.0%
2.9%
5.6%
1974
4.9%
5.9%
3.2%
4.6%
3.6%
7.6%
1975
7.5%
9.1%
5.1%
6.9%
5.0%
9.4%
1976
6.8%
8.1%
4.9%
6.4%
5.0%
9.9%
1977
6.4%
7.8%
4.4%
6.1%
4.7%
10.8%
1978
5.5%
6.5%
3.2%
4.6%
3.8%
9.3%
1979
5.2%
6.1%
3.2%
4.3%
3.3%
7.4%
1980
6.0%
7.0%
3.3%
4.6%
3.1%
7.4%
1981
6.3%
7.5%
3.8%
5.6%
3.6%
8.0%
MEN
Total ***
3.7%
3.9%
3.0%
3.5%
3.6%
6.7%
1968
1.7%
1.8%
1.9%
2.3%
2.8%
6.6%
1969
1.6%
1.7%
1-8%
2.1%
2.2%
5.1%
1970
2.8%
2.9%
2.8%
3.1%
3.3%
5.5%
1971
3.5%
3.7%
3.3%
3.7%
3.4%
5.8%
1972
3.1%
3.2%
3.2%
3.6%
3.6%
6.2%
1973
2.5%
2.7%
2.4%
2.8%
3.0%
6.0%
1974
3.1%
3.2%
2.6%
2.9%
3.3%
6.0%
1975
5.7%
5.9%
4.3%
4.9%
5.4%
9.0%
1976
4.9%
5 . 2%
4.2%
4.7%
5.1%
8.9%
1977
4.3%
4.5%
3.6%
4.1%
5.2%
9.1%
197P
3.5%
3.7%
2.8%
3.3%
4.2%
7.2%
1979
3.4%
3.6%
2.7%
3.3%
3.4%
6.1%
1980
5.1%
5.4%
3.4%
3.9%
3.1%
6.5%
1981
5.5%
5.8%
3.6%
4.2%
2.9%
6.3%
* U is the official unemployment rate, calculated by dividing total
unemployment by the civilian labor force.
** U+D is the unemployment rate which counts all discouraged workers as
unemployed. It divides the unemployed plus discouraged workers by
the civilian labor force plus discouraged workers.
*** The total is the weighted average of the 14 years. It is the sum of
all the years' numerators divided by the sum of the denominators.
Source: Philip Rones, "The Labor Market Problems of Older Workers",
Monthly Labor Review, May 1983, p. 4.
129
TABLE D-5
UNITED STATES
MEDIAN WEEKS OF UNEMPLOYMENT FOR ALL PERSONS WITH
UNEMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE, SELECTED YEARS, BY SEX AND AGE
Sex, Age
MEDIAN WEEKS UNEMPLOYED
1973 1975 1978 1981
MEN
^
25-54 yrs.
8,
.9
14,
.2
11,
,6
13
.7
55-64 yrs.
11,
.3
17.
.1
13,
,7
13,
.6
55 and over*
14,
.9
19,
, 1
18,
,3
16,
.2
WOMEN
25-54 yrs.
6,
.9
11,
,3
9.
, 1
11
.3
55-64 yrs.
10.
.8
16,
,6
11.
,7
11,
.2
65 and over
8.
.6
19.
, 1
14.
,3
13,
.3
* This item may be read as follows: For males age 65 and over who were
unemployed at some time during the year, the midpoint in the distribu-
tion of their number of weeks unemployed was 14.9 weeks in 1973, 19.1
weeks in 1975, etc.
Source: Philip Rones, "Labor Market Problems of Older Workers", Monthly
Labor Review, May 1983, p. 7.
130
TABLE D-6
UNITED STATES
PERSONS NOT IN THE LABOR FORCE WHO DESIRE WORK BUT THINK THEY
CANNOT GET JOBS BY REASON, SEX, & AGE, 1983
(# in thousands)
REASON, AGE, SEX
MEN
Total
16-19
yrs .
20-24
yrs .
25-59
yrs .
60 yrs.
(Stover
PERSONAL FACTORS:
Employers think too
old or too young
Lacks educ . /training
Other personal
handicap
JOB-MARKET FACTORS:
Could not find work
Thinks no job is
aval lable
69
11
--
11
47
51
15
18
17
1
29
5
5
18
2
91
59
70
132
31
10
33
33
118
32
WOMEN
PERSONAL FACTORS:
Employers think too
old or too young
Lacks educ . /training
Other per:~oiial
handicap
JOB-MARKET FACTORS:
Could not find work
Thinks no job is
available
75
11
--
21
43
112
16
23
69
4
57
8
8
37
6
389
41
65
259
25
358
27
51
259
23
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Employ-
ment and Earnings", Household data, annual averages, January 1984.
131
TABLE D-7
UNITED STATES
SUPPLEMENTAL SECURITY INCOME (SSI) FEDERALLY-ADMINISTERED PAYMENTS
BY REASON FOR ELIGIBILITY, SEX, AND RACE
SEPTEMBER 1983
SEX AND RACE
TOTAL
AGED
BLIND
DISABLED
TOTAL NUMBER
3,898,256
1,527,500
78,820
2,291,936
TOTAL PERCENT
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
MEN
34.5%
26.2%
42 . 4%
39.7%
White
20.5%
14.1%
26.2%
24.6%
Black
8.7%
5.7%
10.9%
10.6%
Other
1-6%
1-8%
1.9%
1.5%
Not Reported
3.7%
4.6%
3.5%
3.1%
WOMEN
65 . 4%
73.8%
57.5%
60.2%
White
38.3%
* 41.9%
33.2%
36.0%
Black
17.8%
17.6%
16.5%
18.1%
Other
2.3%
3.1%
2.3%
1.8%
Not Reported
'/•0%
11.1%
5.5%
4.3%
*This item may be read as follows: Of the 3,898,256 persons receiving
SSI benefits during September 1983, 38.3% were white women.
TABLE D-8
OLD-AGE, SURVIVORS, and DISABILITY INSURANCE (OASDI) BENEFITS
DECEMBER 1982
Type of
TOTAL
Beneficiary
United States
$35,839,358
Montana
.$120,680
RETIRED WORKERS
DISABLED WORKERS
SPOUSES OF RETIRED WORKERS
SPOUSES OF DISABLED WORKERS
CHILDREN OF-
Retired Workers
Deceased Workers
Disabled Workers
WIDOWED FATHERS & MOTHERS
WIDOWS AND WIDOWERS
PARENTS
SPECIAL AGE 72 BENEFICARIES
$20, 763, 2 42
$2,603,599
$3,039,310
$365,862
$557,563
$2,321, 150
$1,003,802
$514,773
$4,594,962
$12,483
$62,612
$70,221
$7,510
$11,798
$1,118
$1,901
$8,386
$2,859
$1,660
$14,895
$27
$305
Source(both tables): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
"Social Security Bulletin", Vol.47 No . 3 , March 1984, p. 69, 62.
132
FOOTNOTES FOR OLDER WORKERS
(l)Malcolm Morrison, "The Aging of the U.S. Population: Human Resource
Iiuplications" , Monthly Labor Review, May 1983, p. 14.
(2)Peter Uhlenberg, "Older Women: The Growing Challenge to Design Con-
structive Roles", The Gerontologist , Vol.19 No. 3, 1979, p. 237.
(3) Janice DeGooyer, "Older Working Women Face Age, Sex Discrimination"
Generations, Summer 1982, p. 22.
(4)Montana Center for Gerentology, "Older Montanans: Their Characterist-
ics, Problems, and Needs for Services", p. 50.
(5)DeGooyer, p. 23.
(6)Women's Studies Program and Policy Center at George Washington Uni-
ver:5ity, "Older Women: The Economics of Aging", 1981.
( 7 ) Morn son, p . 17
(8)The Complete Guide to Job Sharing, by Patricia Lee, Walker & Co., New
York, 1983, p. 93.
(9)DeGooyer, p. 22.
133
WOMEN IN
PUBLIC OFFICE
135
WOMEN IN PUBLIC OFFICE
As of September 1983, 24 U.S. Congressional seats were filled by
women, with 2 in the Senate and 22 in the House of Representatives.
This number is 4.5 percent of the 535 total available seats and is the
greatest number of women ever to serve in Congress. The two women cur-
rently serving in the U.S. Senate are the first to be elected to the
Senate without first being appointed to fill unexpired Congressional
terms. (1) Montana lias tlio distinction of having had tlio fiir.t female
Reprer;on t a t i ve in the U.S. Hourje ot Representatives. Jeanette Rankin
(R-MT) Merved from 1917 to 1919 and again from 1941 to 1942. (1)
The percentage of women in State Legislatures, given in TABLE E-5,
has risen from 4.0% in 1969 to 14.3% in 1985. Legislative leadership
in State Legislatures, which includes the President, President Pro Tem,
Majority and Minority leaders in the Senate, the Speaker, Speaker Pro
Tem, & Majority and Minority leaders in the House of Representatives, is
approximately 4 percent female. (2) When states are ranked by percentage
of women legislators, Montana, with 12.7%, is 26th in a ranking of
states where the rankings vary from a low of 1.7% to a high of 28.5%.
Women hold 15.1 percent of appointed positions in state governor's
cabinets, up from 12.8 percent of all appointed state cabinet-level
positions in 1981. (1) Women make up 14.4 percent of appointees who
serve in state agencies (excluding those on governor's staffs), an
increase from 1981 when women held 11.8 percent of such positions. As
shown in TABLE E-4, one-fifth of those serving in appointed state
cabinet positions are involved in health and social services, and only
four percent are serving in the field of civil rights and women's
issues. In Montana, women hold six percent of appointed state cabinet
positions. Montana is one of eleven states with less than ten percent
of appointed state cabinet positions. (1).
137
TABLE E-1
MONTANA
STATE AND COUNTY ELECTED OFFICALS, 1983-84
Total
County Attorney 54
Clerk of Court S5
Slioriif 5 5
Clerk and Recorder 55
County Commissioner 179
School Superintendent 56
Treasurer 55
Public Administrator 49
Assessor 56
Coroner 56
Justice of the Peace 83
Congressional Delegation 4
State Executive Officers 11
Supreme Court Justices 7
Supreme Court Clerk 1
County Auditors 8
County Surveyors 12
District Court Judges 32
Court Reporters 29
1984 State Legislature-Senate 50
House 100
lumber of
Percentage
Women
of Women
0
0.0%
47
85.5%
0
0.0%
47
85.5%
12
6.7%^-
39
69 . 6%
48
87.3%
9
18 . 4%—
28
50.0%
1
1-8%
25
30.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
100. o%\
6
75.0%
0
0.0%
1
3.1%
15
51.7%
3
6.0%
16
16.0%
Total
1,007
298
29.6%
TABLE E-2
MONTANA MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS
WOMEN HOLDING SELECTED OFFICES, 1984
ITI'M
■I'o'L'AL I'oSITloNS*
L'c)::rnoMs
Number
lELL) BV WOMEN
Percent
Librarian 54
Clerk, Assistant Clerk,
and Water Clerk 133
Clerk Treasurer, Treasurer 121
City Judge 96
Commissioner 42
Councilperson 575
Mayor 123
50
92.6%
06
79 . 7%
86
71.1%
28
29.2%
12
28.6%
96
16.7%
8
6.5%
* Numbers are based on positions rather than persons. A person may
hold more than one office and thus be counted more than once. For
example, most City Clerks are also Water Clerks.
Source(both Tables): 1984 Directory of Montana Municipal Officials.
138
UNITED STATES:
TABLE E-3
WOMEN IN STATEWIDE ELECTIVE POSITIONS
December 1983
Number
Of Women
1
3
11
5
1
11
3
4
2
1
2
Governor
Lieutenant Governor
Secretary of State
appointed Sec. of State
Public Service Commissioner
State Treasurer
State Auditor
Supt. of Public Instruction
Clerk of Supreme Court
Labor Commissioner
Corporation Commissioner
TABLE E-4
UNITED STATES
WOMEN APPOINTED TO STATE CABINET POSITIONS 1983
FUNCTIONAL AREA OF APPOINTMENT % Distr. of St.
positions held
Health/Social Services 20%
Governor's Staff 14%
Government Services/Government Administration .... 10%
Labor/Industrial Relations 9%
Finance/Budget/Taxation 7%
Community Affairs/Planning/Housing 7%
Economic Development/Commerce 6%
Environmental Protection/Natural Resources 5%
Energy/Utility Regulation 4%
Human Rights/Civil Rights/Women 4%
Education 3%
Consumer Services 2%
Tourism/Culture/Recreation 2%
Transportation 2%
Library 1%
Other 5%
TABLE E-5
UNITED STATES: WOMEN STATE LEGISLATORS, 1969-84
Cabinet
by women
Number
%
Of Total
Year
Of Women
LeqirslatorB
1969
301
4.0%
1971
344
4.5%
1973
42 4
5.6%
1975
604
8.0%
1977
688
9.1%
1979
770
10.3%
1981
908
12 . 1%
1983
991
13.3%
1984
993
13.4%
1985
1067
14.3% (3
Source (all tables): Nat. Information Bank on Women in Public Office,
a service of the Center for the American Woman & Politics, Eagleton
Institute of Politics, Rutgers University.
139
FOOTNOTES FOR WOMEN IN PUBLIC OFFICE
(1) National Information Bank on Women in Public Office, a service of
the Center for the American Woman and Politics, Eagleton Institute of
Politics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901
(2) "Legislative Leadership", State Government News, March 1983,
pp. 10-12.
(3) "Women Gain Statehouse Roles", The Wall Street Journal,
December 31, 1984.
140
GrS®M F
LAWS, LEGISLATION,
RESOURCES, AND
REFERENCES
Ni
141
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN
Legislative and court decisions have played an important part in the
raising of women from second-class citizenships. The breakthroughs made
since the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the Constitution in 1920,
which granted women the right to vote, are wasted if women are not made
aware of their legal rights. For this reason, a brief look at legisla-
tion of particular relevance to women follows, with federal and state laws
separated as much as possible.
DISCRIMINATION
rKDI'.KAF,
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment dis-
mination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
in the following areas: hiring; discharge; compensation; terms, conditions
or privileges of employment or classification of employees or applicants
for employment. Employers (including state agencies), labor organizations
and employment agencies are covered by title VII. A successful plaintiff
can recover back pay, cost and attorneys' fees. Punitive damages are not
available .
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 outlaws sex discrimin-
ation in the area of education. This includes counseling, curriculum,
testing, facilities, scholarships, student employment, health benefits
and treatment of pregnant students. (1) Grievance procedures, tests to
eliminate sexual bias and handling of sexual harassment complaints have
resulted from campuses compliance efforts.
The Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1972 dealt with discrimination
in regard to credit applicants. The rules are designed to stop abuses
that have previously limited a woman's ability to get credit. When ap-
plying for credit:
- You may not be asked your sex on a credit application.
The one exception is a federal requirement that the
creditor ask your sex if your are applying for a loan
to buy or build a home. You are not required to answer
the question.
- You do not have to choose a courtesy title (Miss., Ms.,
or Mrs.) on a credit form.
- Marital status may not be requested on an application
for an individual, unsecured account, except in com-
munity property states (Montana is not a community
property state) . In other cases where marital status
may be requested, you can only be asked whether you
are married, unmarried, or separated (unmarried
includes singles, divorced or widowed).
Equal Pay Act of 1963 was amended to the Fair Labor Standards Act of
1938 which prohibits the payment of lower wages on the basis of sex where
jobs requiring equal skill, effort and responsibility are performed by
employees of both sexes. Exceptions to this requirement of "equal pay
equal work" are where unequal payments are made pursuant to a seniority
143
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, Discrimination, cont.
system, a merit system, a system where earnings are based on quantity or
quality of production, or a differential based on factors other than sex.
An employer may not lower wages in order to comply with this act. A
successful Equal Pay Act plaintiff can obtain: an order raising wages;
back pay differential for up to two years, (three years for willful
violations) costs, and attorneys' fees.
Executive Order 11246 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race,
color, religion, sex or national origins by federal contractors. Further,
affirmative action with regard to omployment, recruitment, compensation,
nnd solocLloii for training is tcujuirod. Tlio jicndlLy for violations of
tlin ExocuLlvc Order is c.unci! 1 1/iL ion , tennhwiLlon or suspension of the
contract, as well as future Ineligibility for further federal contracts.
These provisions apply to subcontractors as well.
MONTANA
The 1974 Montana Human Rights Actprohibits discrimination on the
basis of race, creed, religion, color, national origin, age, physical
or mental handicap, marital status or sex in employment, education, and
financial and credit transactions. The state and its political
subdivisions are prohibited from engaging in discrimination on any of
the above basis and are prohibited from entering into any agreement,
arrangement, or plan which has the effect of sanctioning such
discriminatory practices. The Act prohibits discrimination in public
accomodations and housing on all of the above stated basis EXCEPT
marital status.
It is an unlawful discriminatory practice for any financial institution
or person to discriminate on the basis of sex or marital status in
the issuance or operation of any type of insurance policy, plan, or
coverage or in any retirement plan, program, or covo.rngo, including
discrimination in regard to rates or premiums and payments or benifits.
This act does not apply to any insurance policy, plan, coverage, or any
pension or retirement plan, program, or coverage in effect prior to
October 1, 1985.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT
Sexual Harassment is an ongoing problem many women face both in
seeking work and while on the job. Sexual harassment is unwanted
nonreciprocal behavior that asserts a persons sex role over their
function as a worker. (3)
The Montana Human Rights Commission adopted the federal guidelines
on sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment" means any unsolicited comments, gestures or
physical contact of a sexual nature when:
(a) submission to such conduct is made cither explicitly or
implicitly a term or condition of an individual's employment;
144
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, Sexual Harassment, cont .
(b) submission to or reiection of such conduct by an individual
is used as the basis for employment decisions affecting such individual;
or
(c) such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably inter-
fering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating,
hostile, or offensive working environment. (Eff. 07/15/83).
Such harassment is a violation of the Montana Human Rights Act and
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. A complaint can be filed
with the Montana Human Rights Commission. If the harassment appears
to violate Title VII, in addition to the Montana Human Rights Act,
both a Montana complaint and a complaint with the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission are filled out. Once a complaint is filed
(no later than 180 days after an occurence or the discovery of such) ,
the Division Staff investigates the complaint. If substantial evidence
supports the complaint, the staff attempts by informal methods to
persuade the employer to eliminate discriminatory practices. If
informal settlement efforts do not work, the complaint may go to
administrative hearing before the Commission. It is possible to
enforce your rights in court, however, these laws do not allow you
into court without the exhaustion of your administrative remedies.
The Montana Human Rights Division or a private attorney can advise
as to the proper action to be taken.
MATERNITY LEAVE
FEDERAL
In October 1978, Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was amended
prohibiting discrimination based on pregnancy requiring that women af-
fected by pregnancy, cJiildbirth or related medical conditions, be treat-
ed like other ill or disabled workers for all employment related purposes. (4)
MONTANA
Montana Maternity leave law makes it unlawful to fire a woman because
she is pregnant, or to refuse to allow her a reasonable maternity leave.
If a woman is disabled due to a pregnancy, the employer may not deny her
any compensation earned through accumulated disability or leave benefits
under the employer's employee benefit plans. When the employee is ready
to return to work, she must be reinstated to the same job or an equivalent
job, receiving equivalent pay, accumulated seniority, retirement
and fringe benefits except if her employer is private and circumstances
have so changed that it is impossible or unreasonable to so reinstate
her. Complaints may be filed with the Human Rights Commission.
145
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, cont.
SOCIAL SECURITY
FEDERAL
The Social Security program is designed to provide earnings-related
protection to the paid worker in covered (employment and to provide
supplementary protection to family members in the form of dependents
and survivors' benefits. (5)
Some of the major issues related to the treatment of women under
Social Security are summarized as follows:
-Low return on contributions of the second working
spouse.
-Lack of coverage of homemakers .
-Adequacy of benefits for divorced wives.
-Adequacy of benefits for older widows.
(In 1980 the median income of non-married
women beneficiaries over 65 was $4640; 56%
of non-married women beneficiaries were at
or below poverty level and 54% were class-
ified as "near poverty".)
Reforms enacted in congress address some of the problems above, but
others remain unresolved due to factors including cost, the complexity
of balancing the system so as not to disadvantage one group of benefic-
iaries in favor of another, and phil ibophical differences.
Provisions addressing the issues are as follows:
-Benefits for widowed, divorced and disabled
women were increased.
-A study of the costs and impact of implement-
ing specific Social Security earnings sharing
proposals was mandated.
-Certain sex-based distinctions were eliminated.
-The "offset" of public pensions against Social
Security was reduced from a dollar for dollar
offset to a two-third offset for all persons.
Additional legislation concerning the treatment of women under the Social
Security system remains before Congress. The following proposals are
directed at issue areas stated above:
-Establish a working spouse benefit payable in
addition to the dependent spouse benefit.
-Increase from 5 to 10 the number of years of low
earnings excluded from the compensation of a
workers' covered earnings history for those caring
for children 6 years or younger at least 6 months
out of the year.
-Reduce from 10 to 5 the number of years of marriage
necessary before a dependent divorced spouse is
eligible for benefits on an ex-spouse s earnings
record.
-Restore the minimun benefit eliminated under the
Reconciliation Act of 1981.
-Allow disabled widows to receive full benefits at
any age .
146
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, Social Security, cont .
-Provide Lrnns i L i oiia 1 bonofits for widowod porsoiis
at the age of 50 to allow adjustment to the loss
of their deceased spouse's income.
-Allow a husband and wife to combine their earnings
during their marriage.
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE ACT
MONTANA
The uniform Marriage and Divorce Act was adopted in Montana in 1975.
It simplifies the prior law and eliminates some of the differences in
marriage and divorce statutes between states. The new law is free of
reference to the sex of the parties. Some of the major changes from prior
law are as follows: (6)
-As of January 1, 1976, there is only one reason for
dissolution of a marriage - a finding by the court
that the marriage is "irretrievably broken." This
eliminates fault of either marital partner and also
some of tlio provisions which discriminated against
both men and womon .
-Tiie Act sets out a number of factors the court is
now to take into consideration when dividing up the
property of both parties. Also, no married person's
separate property or income can be drawn upon to pay
the debts of the spouse unless the debt was incurred
to provide necessary articles for either spouse or
their children, or unless it is believed with reason
by the creditor that the property belonged to the
spouse incurring the debt.
-Both husband and wife have a duty to support each
other and either may be called upon to piy child
support .
-New factors to be considered by the court in deter-
mining custody of the children are laid out in the
Uniform Act. These factors favor neither mother or
father in the determination.
-Alimony technically no longer exists. Previous law
required that the wife had committted no offense
contributing to the marital breakdown in order to
obtain alimony. However, a person can be granted
spousal support in certain instances.
-In 1977 it was made mandatory that the judge restore
the wife's former name if she so requests. Under pre-
vious law the implication was that if children existed,
the judge could refuse to grant such a name change.
147
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, cont .
CHILD SUPPORT
As of Spring 1982, of the 5 million women awarded support, 46% re-
ceived full payment, 25.1% received partial payment and 28.2% did not
receive payments at all. Approximately 3.4 million (41%) of women who
are single parents were not awarded child support. (7)
FEDERAL
The Child Support Enforcement Amendments of 1984 (Public Law 98-378)
mandate all states enact laws requiring the use of certain procedures in
their Child Support Enforcement Programs. Mandatory income withholding,
incentive payments to states, and other improvements in the program will
assure all children in the United States who need assistance in securing
financial support from their parents will receive such assistance re-
gardless of circumstances or residence. The 1985 Montana legislative
session will deal with the mandatory and discretionary child support
laws required by states.
Under the newly passed Congressional legislation, employers would in
in many cases have to withhold child support from wages when a parent
fell one month behind in making court-ordered payments. Employers could
be "held liable to the state for any amount" that they failed to with-
hold from an employee's paycheck after receiving iJiopor notice from the
state. This portion of the law is scheduled to begun October 1, l')H5,
unless the states' legislators mandate an earlier obligation date.
Effective March 9, 1984, section 454(9) of the Social Security Act
as amended by section 2335 of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of
1981 requires that child support enforcement agencies: determine if in-
dividuals receiving unemployment compensation have met support obliga-
tions; enforce unmet obligations in accordance with state-developed
guidelines for obtaining an agreement with the individual to have a spec-
ified amount of support withheld from unemployment compensation wages;
and in the absence of an agreement, institute legal process to require
the withholding.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Physical abuse is the single major cause of injury to women. Nearly
6 million women are abused by their husbands every year. Between 2,000
and 4,000 women are beaten to death every year.
Public exposure to this problem has allowed laws currently on the
books to finally be enforced so that women can get legal protection
through the courts and restrictions in the law are being eased giving
police more room to make arrests. Also, the consequences for battering
a wife are rising across the country.
Shelters have been developed for abused women so they can escape the
violent environment. Across the country are some 800 shelters in private
homes, all of which have waiting lists. The YWCA sponsors over 200 shel-
ters or programs in 30 states and at least 14 states are now gaining funds
for domestic violence programs through a surcharge on marriage licenses;
Montana is one of these. (8)
1A8
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, Domestic Violence, cont .
In Montana, the 1979 Legislature made the Departmemt of Social and
Rehabiliation Services responsible for collecting and analyzing statistics
on domestic violence and spouse abuse from state and local social service
agencies over a four year period. Also a grant program was established
to fund locally controlled programs dealing with domestic violence. Sug-
gested services to be provided through these grant assisted programs are:
-Counseling for victims or their spouses;
-Shelters for victims;
-Assisting victims in obtaining services and information;
-Education programs.
Othor protection nvnilable in Montana to abused women are (1) the
amendments to laws which now allow a spouse to be excluded from the other s
dwelling if so ordered by the court and (2) the law allowing one spouse to
to sue another for damages from assault. Criminal prosecution is still
not possible in Montana unless the couple is living apart at the time.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT
MONTANA
Before 1975, rape victims faced humiliation and demoralization in
the courtroom by having past sexual behavior and their general morality
questioned during trial. Also, a woman's character could be attacked
through belief that she had "asked for" or "invited" an attack of rape
or that she had not been raped at all but was merely seeking revenge
against the accused. The 1975 amendments to Montana law reflects a
change in such attitudes and new protective provisions, including 1977
amendments, provide that: "No evidence concerning the sexual conduct of
the victim is admissible in prosocuL ions . . . cxco,pt :
-I'.vidence of Llio victims past sexual conduct with the offender.
-Evidence of specific instances of the victims sexual activity
to show the origin of semen, pregnancy, or disease which is at
issue in the prosecution."
In addition, evidence of failure to make a timely complaint or immediate
outcry no longer raises any presumption as to the credibility of the victim.
Another change affecting rape enables spouses to sue each other for
restitution for injuries from a legal wrong such as an assault. However,
in the case of rape, a spouse may not bring criminal charges agnln.st the
othor unless thoy wore living np«rL at I ho time, but may bring a civil
action for monetary damages.
ERA
FEDERAL
An Equal Rights Amendment was first proposed in Congress in 1923.
Various forms of the Amendment were introduced to Congresses until its
final passage in 1972, in the 92nd Congress. In 1978 the Amendment was
approved by 35 states, 3 less than the necessary 3/4, so Congress voted
to extend the deadline from 7 to 10 years. However, no additional State
voted for ratification before the new deadline and the measure died on
June 30, 1982. (9)
149
LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN, ERA, cont.
In the 98th Congress, an ERA was introduced in the same form as the
1972 proposal with 221 co-sponsors in the House and 55 in the Senate.
It would provide "equality of rights under the law" for men and women.
Also introduced was an "Equal Rights Act," which would extend by statute
the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment so as to forbid dis-
crimination on account of a "classification based on gender.
A third proposal for expanding women's rights would revise appoxi-
mately 100 existing Federal laws to neutralize specified statutes, ex-
tending to both sexes provisions of the Federal Code now limited to only
one sex.
All of these bills have been referred to the House and Senate Commit-
tees on the Judiciary.
150
SELECTED MONTANA HOUSE BILLS
(& date passed)
HB 45-2/04/83
To establish a fee for declaration of marriage without
soleminization, allocating it in the same manner as a
marriage license fee; amending sections.
HB 119-4/19/83: To provide that there is a presumption in a child sup-
port proceeding that the level of support of each child
may not be less than that received by children on public
assistance; ammending section.
HB 191-4/25/83: To provide that the division of property in a proceeding
to terminate a marriage is considered to be a division
of common ownership interests of the parties; amending
section.
HB 201-3/23/83:
HB 269-3/28/83:
HB 400-5/16/83:
HB 407-4/27/83:
HB 507-3/29/33:
HB 554-3/29/83
HB 714-4/15/83
Changing the time when the final order concerning an un-
fair labor complaint must be issued from 5 months after
a complaint is submitted to the hearing officer to 5
months after final briefs are submitted to the hearing
officer; amending section.
Allowing a county rather than a city, town, or munici-
pality to establish a fund for licensed day-care centers
and providing an effective date.
Creating a displaced homemaker program and providing
for an appropiation; amending section.
To appropriate $25,000 to the Department of SRS to
create a statewide network of food banks.
To allow an exception to the prohibition against
employment discrimination on the basis of marital
status in certain circumstances; amending section.
To transfer functions regarding maternity leave from
the Commissioner of Labor and Industry to the Commis-
sion of Human Rights; amending section.
To establish proceedures to be followed by the Human
Rights Commission in the enforcement of the governmental
code of fair practices and to provide for consistency
of interpretation and enforcement of the government code
of fair practices and the human rights laws; amending
section.
151
SELECTED MONTANA SENATE BILLS
(& date passed)
SB 14-1/21/83:
SB 22-3/22/83:
SB 169-3/17/83:
SB 177-3/22/83:
SB 371-4/12/83:
SB 425-3/31/83:
To clarify the law relating to the termination of the
parent-child relationship.
Requiring use of a safety restraint system to transport
a child <4 years old, ....and providing an effective date
Authorizing the Board of Personnel Appeals to investi-
gate and dismiss complaints of unfair labor practices.
To provide that income of a judgement debtor necessary
for the support of his family is exempt from execution
to satisfy judgements or orders for maintenance or child
support only to the extent allowed by federal law.
Providing that if it is in the best interest of the
child, a child custody decree may be modified when a
child aged 14 years or older desires that it be
modified.
To direct the Department of Administration to work
toward the goal of establishing a standard of equal pay
for comparable worth and report to the legislature the
status of the standard under the state classification
plan and pay scales.
152
RESOURCES
The following is a brief list of organizations, by city, with a
stated purpose of political, educational, or community work centered
on women's issues. Many other organizations are available to help
women. Some of these (Indian Alliance, Health Care, Midwives , Planned
Parenthood, Pro-Choice, Mental Health, Family Planning, Alliance of
Gays and Lesbians, Women's Clinics) may be found in the Montana
Women's Resource Directory: 1984, Women's Resource Center, Room 119,
University Center, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812;
(406) 243-4153. All telephone numbers listed below are Montana numbers
and have an area code of (406).
ANACONDA
Crisis Line 563-3413
BILLINGS
N.O.W. Local Chapter 252-8999. Local chapter of the National
Organization of Women whose aim is to end discrimination on
the basis of sex. Action rather than service oriented. Regular
meetings .
Battered Spouse Center 259-8100. Crisis shelter for women and
children. Hot line and shelter available 24 hours.
Rape Crisis Line 245-6721 (mornings) 259-6506 (remainder of day)
24 hour crisis line offering rape crisis counseling and outreach.
Limited services nvoilnblp. for victims of sexual assault.
Women's Studies and Service Center 657-2880. 1500 N. 30th.
Interdisciplinary academic program. Support groups, personal
counseling and referrals. Library. Resource for campus and
community women.
Y.W.C.A. Women's Center 245-6879. 909 Wyoming.
Offers counsel i iiy, for displaced liomomakers (and for any women who
comes in), support groups for divorced, widowed, battered women.
Referrals to safe homes.
BOZEMAN
Affirmative Action Office (MSU) 994-2042. Monitors women employees
on campus and provides referrals and information to community.
Battered Women's Network 586-4111. Serves battered women,
training programs for advocates, speaker's bureau, legal fund and
loan funds for Bozeman area battered women.
Help Center 586-3333. 323 S. Wallace. 24 hour crisis line and
referral line; can provide emergency shelter for battered women
and transients. Rape outreach team and counseling. Also handles
suicide, drug dependency, and all crisis calls.
153
RESOURCES: BOZEMAN, cont .
N.O.W. Local Chapter 587-0742, Toni Scharf or 587-2427, Barb
McQuillan. National Organization of Women.
Women in Transition 587-1238. 15 South Tracy. Job development
for women re-entering the job market, especially displaced
homemakers . Testing, counseling, other supportive services.
Legal aid and adult education funds. Workshops.
Women's Resource Center (MSU) 994-3836. 15 Hamilton Hall,
Services for faculty, students, and community. Library. Sack
lunch seminars. Career series. Assert iveness training. Infor-
mation and referrals. Sexual assault prevention and education
programs .
BUTTE
Crisis Line 723-5489. Counseling and referrals. Transitional
home available.
N.O.W. Local Chapter 723-6132. Lillian Michalsky. National
Organization of Women.
Safe Space 782-8511. 24 hour crisis line. Temporary shelter.
Food, clothing, transportation available. Referrals, counseling,
community outreach; rape and crisis support. Serves Deer Lodge,
Powell, Silver Bow and Madison counties.
CONRAD
N.O.W. Local Chapter 278-3384. Sharon Eisenberg. National
Organization of Women.
COLSTRIP
Crisis Line 748-2233 (sheriff's office). 24 hour line, particularly
for aid to domestic violence situations. Shelter, iood, transjiorLa-
tion available. Community education.
N.O.W. Local Chapter 748-2375. Yvonne Unruh. National Organization
of Women.
DEER LODGE
N.O.W. Local Chapter 492-6478. Doris Brander. National Organiza-
tion of Women.
DILLON
Crisis Line 683-2200.
Women's Resource Center 683-4817. 126 South Montana. Education
programs. Referrals. Library. Advocacy for abused spouses and
"Safe Home" system. 24 hour helpline and advocate for emergency
services and support.
FORSYTH
Battered Spouse Task Force 356-2715 and 356-2161. Shelter,
advocacy, support groups.
154
RESOURCES, cont.
FORT BELKNAP
Women's Educational Equity 353-2205. Clarina Werk. Personal and
career counseling for students. Workshops and support to provide a
forum for Native American women role models, to strengthen success
of Native American women attending school.
GLASGOW
Crisis Line 228-8285. Counseling, referrals.
Domestic Violence Crisis Line 228-9349. Shelter, transportation,
meals. Public education and referrals.
GLENDIVE
Crisis Line 365-2412. Aid for spousn dbiiso, drug and alcohol
pr()l)l(<ms. Sli(>lLiM /nil! 1 laiispoil/iL I on .
GREAT FALLS
Crisis Center 453-6511. 24 hour line. Counseling, referrals.
Contact for shelter.
Native American Women's Association 761-3144. Grace Fairhurst.
Focus on community education, laws and legislation that affect
Native American Women. lu-service workshops on issues of concern
to members. Cultural classes.
N.O.W. Local Chapter 452-6260. Benita Wheeler. National Organiza-
tion of Women.
Shelter 453-6511 (through Crisis Center).
Rape Action Line 727-7273. Counseling on rape, incest and sexual
abuse. Community education.
Women in Transition 727-0966 (Y.W.C.A.). 220 North Ave.
Program for displaced homemakcrs re-entering the job market.
Workshops, counseling. Weekly discussion group.
HAVRE
Adult and Community Education 265-4356. Joan Erickson. Workshops
and programs on issues of concern to women.
Displaced Homemaker Program 265-6743. Employment program for
women re-entering the job market. Skills education, workshops,
job development skills. Supportive services include shelter,
childcare and emergency aid.
Spouse Abuse Hot Line 759-5170. 24 hour line. Emergency shelter,
transportation. Serving Blaine, Hill, and Liberty counties.
HELENA
Crisis Line 442-0640. 24 hour line. Counseling. Shelter
available .
155
RESOURCES: HELENA, cont .
Friendship Center 442-6800. 24 hour line. General emergency
shelter available for families. Aid for domestic violence
situations. Shelter, transportation, advocacy, counseling and
referrals. Serving Lewis and Clark, Broadway, and Jefferson counties.
League of Women Voters 443-0967. Robin Putnam, President.
1497 Mineral Road. A non-partisan political organization that
promotes citizen participation in government. Involved with voter
education and registration to create more informed voters. Meetings
are held on the 1st and 3rd Tuesdays of each month.
N.O.W. Local Chapter 443-1654. Judy Halm. National Organization of
Women.
Women's Center Crisis Line 443-5353. 24 hour line. Peer and
rape counseling. Information and referrals.
Women's Lobbyist Fund Laurie Abbott Lamson, President, P.O. Box 1099
Helena, 59624. A statewide coalition of women's organizations formed
for the purpose of lobbying in the Legislature on issues of importance
to Montana women. The WLF is a private, non-profit organization with
a board of directors composed of representatives of women s organiza-
tions, at-large members and officers.
Women's Political Caucus 443-3136. Linda Skaar. Formed to put
women into elective and appointive offices in government through
monetary and organizational support of candidates. WPC attempts to
awaken, organize and assert the vast political power of women.
Regular meetings.
KALI SPELL
N.O.W. Local Chapter 257-6208. Connie Manderino. National
Organization of Women.
Project Trnn.sition for Dis|)la(;(>d llom<>mak<TS 755-5222, e.xt. 299.
Kay Kubcha. For separated, divorced oi- widowed homemakcrs.
Information, support groups that emphasize emotional adjustments.
Job and relocaion counseling. Skills and career identification.
Assess educational, financial, and career needs. Legal referrals.
No cost.
Rape Crisis Line 755-5067. 24 hour line. Aid for women in crisis.
Safe Home Network. Support group for battered women. Advocacy and
peer counseling. Community education.
Women's Center of Flathead Valley 755-5222, ext. 253. Heritage
Hall, Flathead Community College. Information and referrals.
Cultural events, peace activities. Community education, brown bag
lunches. Library.
LIBBY
Crisis Line 222-3332. Counseling, referrals.
156
RESOURCES: LIBBY, cont .
Lincoln County Women's Help Line 293-3223. Troy and Eureka call
collect. 24 hour crisis line. Aid to domestic violence, rape and
incest situations. Shelter, transportation, advocacy.
LEWISTOWN
Displaced Homemaker Program 538-7488. Carol Wicks. Employment
program for homemakers re-entering the job market. Personal and job
counseling. Workshops, divorce support group.
N.O.W. Local Chapter 538-9670. Barb Gies. National Organization
of Women.
MALTA
Crisis Line 654-1599.
Phillips County N.O.W. 674-5453. Candace Pehrson. National
Organization of Women.
MILES CITY
Clark Street Inn 232-1856. Emergency Sliclter.
Displaced Homemaker Program 232-3031. Sharon Kearnes . Employment
program for homemakers re-entering the job market. Workshops,
support group, counseling, job placement. Transportation, shelter
and day care.
Mental Health Crisis Line 232-1688. Aid for rape and sexual assualt
crisis. Counseling, referrals. Support group for incest survivors.
MISSOULA
American Association of University Women (A.A.U.W.) Branch,
549-2670, Marge Dodge or 258-6134, Karen Willis.
Battered Women's Shelter 543-8277 (Contact through Crisis Center).
24 hour line. peer counseling and weekly support groups. Advocacy.
Phone counseling also available. Run by Missoula Y.W.C.A.
Bitterroot Educational Resources for Women 728-3041. 315 S. 4th E.
Distributes publications on a variety of women's issues including
the Montana Divorce Handbook, the Montana Birth Control Handbook.
Also involved in the Women in Technology Project.
Crisis Center 543-8277. Listening service and referrals for
people in crisis. Contact for shelter.
Montana Women's History Project 728-3041. 315 S. 4th East.
Collecting and publicizing personal and published histories of
Montana women from all areas, ethnic groups, and occupations.
N.O.W. Local Chapter 728-7310. Lynette Kemp. National
Organization of Women.
r^y
RESOURCES: MISSOULA, cont .
Women's Resource Center (U of M) 243-4153. Room 119, University
Center, Bozeman, Montana 59812. Information and referrals. Library
of women's issues materials. Sponsors cultural events, brown bag
lunches, Assertiveness Training, Women's Studies courses, journal
and other workshops, and conferences. Newsletter. Employment
discrimination/harassment advocate on staff.
Women in Transition 543-6768. Y.W.C.A., 1130 W. Broadway.
Assists women who were full-time homemakers and are now without
emotional or economic support. Individual, emotional and
employment counseling. Peer support groups, workshops, including
job search skills and personal effectiveness. All services free to
eligible women.
Women's Place 543-7606. 127 East Main Street. 24 hour crisis line
and walk-in. Women working together to end domestic and sexual
violence. Aid for rape, battering, child sexual abuse, divorce and
women's health. Support groups, advocacy, counseling, referrals and
public education on a wide variety of women's issues.
RONAN
Family Crisis Center 676-2518. Counseling, advocacy. Shelter,
transportation. Battered women's support group. Community
education.
TWIN BRIDGES
Crisis Line 684-5400. Emergency shelter. Weekly support group.
Community outreach.
WHITEHALL
Crisis Line 287-3282 (Monday-Friday 8-5) and 287-5440 during all
other hours. Information, referrals and transportation.
158
INDEX OF REFERENCES
MONTANA COUNTY PROFILES, Fourth Edition, 1983. Published by the
Census and Economic Information Center, presently of the Montana
Department of Commerce (previously of the Department of Administra-
tion) Helena, Montana.
MONTANA EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR FORCE, a quarterly report published by
the Department of Labor & Industry, Research and Analysis Bureau,
Helena, Montana.
MONTANA ANNUAL PLANNING INFORMATION: 1985, published by the Dept .
of Labor & Industry, Research and Analysis Bureau, Helena, Montana.
REPORT 3: SOCIAL INDICATORS FOR PLANNING AND EVALUATION, 1980 Census
of Population, for the State of Montana, SMSA's, Counties, and
selected cities, a special report compiled by the U.S. Department of
Labor's Employment and Training Administration in conjunction with
Lawrence Berkley Laboratory, University of California, Berkley,
California. Printing and distribution was done by National Technical
Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
1980 CENSUS OF POPULATION, Chapter B - General Population
Characteristics-Montana, PC80-1-B20. Bureau of the Census, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
1980 CENSUS OF POPULATION, Chapter C - General Social and Economic
Characteristics-Montana, PC80-1-C28. Bureau of the Census, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
1980 CENSUS OF POPULATION, Chapter D - Detailed Population
Characteristics-Montana, PC80-1-D28. Bureau of the Census, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
1982 CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE, Preliminary Reports - Montana and
Counties, AC82-A-30-000 ( P ) , issued April, 1984. Bureau of the Census,
U.S. Department of Commerce, V7ashington, D.C.
EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS, Issued monthly, U.S. Department of Labor,
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, D.C.
STATISTICAL ABSTRACT OF THE UNITED STATES: 1984, U.S. Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C.
THE STATE OF SMALL BUSINESS: A Report of the President, transmitted
to the Congress March 1984, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
159
OTHER SUGGESTED READING
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR, February 9, 1984 - "Sexual Harassment:
A Continuing Employment Challenge".
WASHINGTON POST, February 9, 1984 - "Money: Windfall for Women".
MS. MAGAZINE, March 1984 - "Tax Breaks for Child Care".
NEW YORK TIMES, February 27, 1984 - "Best Job Chances for Women Listed"
CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS, February 27, 1984 - "Women, Minorities
Make Gains in Science".
CHANGING TIMES, March 1984 - "What Every Woman Needs to Know about
Pension Plans" .
CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, March 1, 1984 - Colloquy on Pay Equity for
Female Congressional Staff Persons.
WASHINGTON }M);JT, March 9, 1 nf>,4 - "M i : .; i i i.; . i i^p i :;.>ii.il.o KciLilioi; Women's
Vote" .
CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, March 20, 1984 - "Women Workers Must Be Included
in Economic Planning".
CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, March 20, 1984 - "Changing Needs of the Family".
160
INDEX BY SUBJECT
AGE: Section A-Displaced Homemakers; Armed Forces/Veterans; Tables
A-2; A-3; A-5; A-6; A-7; A-10; A-11; A-12; A-15; A-39; B-3;
B-6; B-7; B-8; B-9; B-14; B-30; B-31; B-33; C-2; C-3;
D-1; D-2; D-3; D-4; D-5; D-6; D-7; D-8.
D-8; D-9.
AGRICULTURE: Section-A Agriculture, Self-employed & Women owned
Businesses; Section C-Education-Earned Degrees; Tables
A-1; A-21; A-22; A-23; A-26B; A-32; A-33; A-34; A-35;
B-10; B-11; B-12; C-3; C-5; C-6; D-2; D-3.
APPLICANTS: See JOB SERVICE.
APPRENTICES: Section A-Occupational Distribution; Table A-28; A-29.
ARMED FORCES: See MILITARY.
CHILDCARE: Section A-Childcare, Displaced Homemakers; Tables A-36;
A-37.
CHILDREN: See WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES.
CLASS OF WORKER: Section A-Occupational Distribution, Agriculture;
Tables A-26A; A-26B; A-34.
COUNTY: Section D-Older Workers; Section E- Women in Public Office;
Table A-25; Appendix B.
DEGREES: Section B-Income-Wagegap; Section C-Education-Earned Degrees;
Table B-3; B-6; B-7; B-8; B-9; B-14; B-28; C-4; C-5; C-6.
DISCOURAGED WORKERS: Section D-Older Workers; Tables D-4; D-6;
Also, See REASONS NOT IN LABOR FORCE.
DISPLACED HOMEMAKERS: Section A-Displaced Homemakers; Section D-Older
Workers .
DURATION OF UNEMPLOYMENT: Tables A-12; D-5.
EARNINGS: See INCOME.
EDUCATION: Section B-Wagegap; Women Maintaining Families; Section C-
Education; Tables A-6; A-7; A-15; B-3; B-6; B-7; B-8; B-9;
B-14; B-28; C-1; C-2; C-3; C-4; C-5; C-6; D-6.
ELECTED OFFICIALS: Section A-Women in Public Office; Table E-1, E-2, E-3.
EMPLOYMENT: Section A-Full-& Part-time Employment, Agriculture,
Armed Forces/ Veterans, Section B- Wagegap, Section D-
Older Workers; Tables A-1; A-2; A-3; A-4; A-5; A-8;
A-9; A-10; A-11; A-21; A-22; A-23: A-24; A-25; A-26A;
A-26B; A-27; A-33; A-34; A-36; A-37; A-38; B-1; B-2; B-5;
B-6; B-7; B-12; B-13; B-14; B-22; B-27; D-2; D-3.
161
INDEX BY SUBJECT, cont .
ENROLLMENT: Section A-Armed Forces; Section C-Education-Enrollment ;
Tables C-1; C- 2; C-3. Also, See EDUCATION.
FAMILIES: Section A-Full- and Part-time Employment; Section A-Job
Sharing/Flextime; Sec. A-Displaced Homemakcrs; Section A-
Childcare; Section B-Women Maintaining Families.
Tables A-3; A-4; A-7; A-9; A-36; A-37; B-17; B-18; B-19; B-20;
B-21; B-22; B-23; B-24; B-25; B-26; B-27; B-28; B-29; B-3I.
FLEXTIME: Section A-Job Sharing/Flextime; See JOB SHARING.
HANDICAPPED: Table A- 15.
HOUSEHOLDER: Section A-Displaced Homemakers ; Section B- Income-Women
Maintaining Families; Tables A-4; B-21; B-22; B-24; B-25;
B-26; B-29; B-31.
INCOME: Section A-FuIl-time &. Part-time Employment, Section A-Displaced
Homemakers; Section B-Income-Wagegap;Section D-Older Workers.
Tables A-32; B-1; B-2; B-3; B-4; B-5; B-6; B-7; B-8; B-9; B-10;
B-11; B-12; B-13; B-14; B-15; B-16; B-24; B-25; B-30; B-31.
INDUSTRIES: Section B-Income-Wagegap; Section D-Older Workers; Tables
A-23; A-24; A-32; C-6.
JOB SERVICE: Section A-Job Service; Tables A-14; A-15; B-4.
JOB SHARING: Section A-Job Sharing/Flextime.
LABOR FORCE: Section A-Labor Force Participation, Occupational
Distribution; Tables A-1; A-2; A-3; A-4; A-5; A-10;
A-36; D-1; D-3.
LEGISLATORS: Section A-Women in Public Office; Table E-5.
MARITAL STATUS: Section A-Labor Force Participation, Agriculture;
Section A-Displaced Homemakers; Section B-Income-
Wagegap; Women Maintaining Families; Section D-
Older Workers; Tables A-3; A-7; A-9; B-17;
B-18; B-19; B-20; B-23; B-24; B-25.
MILITARY: Section A-Armed Forces; Section C-Education-Earned Degrees;
Tables A-15; A-38; A-39; A-40.
NOT IN LABOR FORCE: Tables A-1; A-3; A-6.
OCCUPATION: Sec. A-Occupational Distribution; Sec. B-Income: Wagegap;
Sec. C-Earned Degrees; Tables A-14; A-16; A-17; A-18;
A-19; A-20; A-21; A-22; A-25; A-27; A-29; A-35; B-1; B-2;
B-10; B-U; B-12; B-13; B-15; B-16; C-3; C-5; C-6; D-2.
162
INDEX BY SUBJECT, cont .
OLDER WORKERS: Section A-Labor Force Participation; Full-Time/Part -Time
Employment; Armed Forces; Section D-Older Workers;
Tables A-2; A-5; A-6; A-7; A-11; A-15; A-39; B-3; B-6;
B-7; B-8; B-9; B-14; B-30; B-31; B-33; C-2; D-1; D-2;
D-3; D-4; D-5; D-6; D-7; D-8.
PARTICIPATION RATES: Section A-Labor Force Participation, Section B-
Education-Students in the Labor Force, Section D-
Older Workers; Tables A-2; A-3; B-18;
B-21; D-3.
PART-TIME/FULL-TIME: Section A-Full-time & Part-Time Employment;
Tables A-8; A-9; A-10; A-11; A-37; B-22; B-27.
PLACEMENT: Section C-Education-Placement , Table B-4; Also, See JOB
SERVICE.
POPULATION: Section A-Labor Force Participation, Section D-Older Workers;
Tables A-1; A-2; A-3; D-3.
POVERTY: Section A-Childcare; Section B-Women Maintaining Families;
Section D-Older Workers; Tables B-22; B-26; B-27; B-28; B-29;
B-30; B-31.
PROJECT CHALLENGE: Section A-Project Challenge.
PUBLIC OFFICE: Section A-Women in Public Office; Tables E-1; E-2;
E-3; E-4; E-5.
RACE: Tables-A-2; A-4; A-5; A-6; A-15; A-26A; A-26B; A-39; B-8;
B-15; B-21; B-22; B-24; B-26; B-28; B-29; B-30; B-31; D-3; D-7.
REASON FOR UNEMPLOYMENT/NOT IN LABOR FORCE: A-6; A-7; B-27; D-6.
RECIPIENTS: Section B-Women Maintaining Families; Tables B-31; B-32;
B-33; D-7; D-8; Also, See JOB SERVICE, WELFARE.
SELF-EMPLOYED: Section A-Self Employed & Women Owned Business; Section B
Women Maintaining Families; Section D-Older Workers;
Tables A-26A; A-26B; A-30; A-31; A-32; A-34; B-31. SEE
SOLE-PROPRIETORSHIPS AND WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESSES.
SEX: Section A-Self -Employed Women & Women-Owned Businesses; Full-Time
and Part-Time Employment, Armed Forces/Veterans, Section B-
Wagegap; Tables A-1; A-2; A-4; A-5; A-6; A-7; A-8; A-10; A-11;
A-12; A-13; A-14; A-18; A-22; A-23; A-26A; A-26B; A-28; A-29;
A-30; A-32; A-33; A-34; A-38; A-39; B-1; B-2; B-3; B-4; B-5; B-6;
B-7; B-8; B-9; B-10; B-11; B-12; B-13; B-14; B-15; B-16; B-23;
B-25; B-26; B-27; B-30; B-31; B-32; B-33; C-1; C-2; C-3; C-4;
C-5; C-6; D-3; D-4; D-5; D-6; D-7; E-1; E-2.
SOLE-PROPRIETORSHIPS: Section A-Self -Employed Women & Women-Owned
Businesses; Tables A-30; A-32; Also, See SELF-
EMPLOYED; WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESSES.
163
INDEX BY SUBJECT, cont .
UNEMPLOYMENT :
Section A -Unemployment Rates; Job Service;Section B-
Women Maintaining Families; Section D-Older Workers.
Tables A-1; A-2; A-3; A-4; A-5; A-12; A-13; A-36; B-19;
B-21; B-27; D-4; D-5.
VETERANS: See MILITARY.
WAGEGAP: Section B-Wagegap; Women Maintaining Families;
Tables B-1; B-2; B-3; B-4; B-5; B-6; B-7; B-8;
B-11; B-12; B-14; B-15; B-16.
■9; B-10;
WELFARE, etc.: A-15; B-31; B-32; B-33; Also, See RECEPIENTS,
WOMEN MAINTAINING FAMILIES:
Section A-Labor Force Participation,
Agriculture, Childcare, Job Sharing/Flex-
time; Section B-Wagegap, Women
Maintaining Families; Section C-Education-
Placement; Tables A-4; A-9; A-36; A-37;
B-18; B-19; B-20; B-21; B-22; B-23; B-24;
B-25; B-27; B-28; B-29; B-31; B-32; B-33.
WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESSES:
Tables A-31; A-32; Also, See SELF-EMPLOYED;
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIPS.
164
FOOTNOTES FOR LAWS AFFECTING WOMEN
(1) The Changing Lives of Hawaii's Women; Progress Since Statehood;
A contemporary historical record; "In Law"; p. 36.
(2) Montana Department of Labor & Industry, Human Rights Division,
January 14, 1985.
(3) Montana Woman: Your Job Rights; MT Dept. Labor and Industry;
Chapter 2.D., "Sexual Harassment"; p. 11.
(4) Montana Woman: Your Job Rights; MT Dept. Labor and Industry;
Chapter 3.E.I., "Montana Law"; p. 20.
(5) Selected Women's Issues in the 98th Congress; IB83135; Updated
04/26/84; by Leslie Gladstone, Government Division; "Social
Security"; p. 2.
(6) Montana Women and the Law; MT Dept. of Labor, 1980; Chapter VIII-
"Marriage, Divorce & the Family"; p. 31.
(7) California Commission on the Status of Women; October 1983;
"Child Support".
(8) California Commission on the Status of Women; March 1984;
"Domestic Violence" .
(9) Selected Women's Issues in the 98th Congress; IB83136; Update-
04/26/84; by Leslie Gladstone; "Equal Rights"; p. 8.
165
APPENDIX A
PLACEMENT DATA
The placement information was supplied by the Career and Place-
ment Offices of each respective school. The data is presented
with this note of appreciation and thanks for the cooperation
and effort of those individuals involved in its collection.
167
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168
GRADUATE SURVEY RESULTS
ROCKY MOUNTAIN COLLEGE, 1983
Male
Female
BUSINESS- Econ. /Bus. Admin.
Salesperson 3
Insurance 2
Accounting 2
Pet Shop 1
Mgr. Trainee, Finance Co. 1
Bank 2
Yellowstone B & G Ranch 1
Marine Corps 1
Job hunting 1
Continuing Education 2
No Information 3
Store Manager
Insurance
Supply Co.
Appraisal Clerk
Bank
No Information
3
1
1
1
1
4
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Teaching 3
Day Care 1
Continuing Education 1
Homemaker 1
No Information 1
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
Teaching
MUSIC EDUCATION
Job hunting
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Job hunting
Retail Clerk
ENGLISH
Pastor/Teacher
Gamble Robinson
1
1
Admissions Counsellor
BIOLOGY
Continuing Education
No Information
1
1
No Information
MATHEMATICS
Job hunting
169
ROCKY MOUNTAIN COLLEGE GRADUATE SURVEY, cont.
Male
Female
GEOLOGY
Bartender
No Information
PSYCHOLOGY
Social Worker
Indian Health Service 1
Waitress 1
Continuing Education 1
No Information 1
HISTORY
No Information
SOCIOLOGY
Job hunting
Continuing Education
No Information
1
1
2
Retail Clerk 1
Continuing Education 1
No Information 1
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Teaching/Coaching 1
Quality Business Systems 1
Continuing Education 2
No Information 1
No Information
FINE ARTS
Homemaker
MUSIC
Continuing Education
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172
MONTANA COLLEGE OF MINERAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, BUTTE
PLACEMENT DATA, 1982-83
SUMMARY BY PLACEMENT BY CATEGORY
MALE
FEMALE
TOTAL
1. SATISFACTORY CAREER POSITION 70(33%)
2. CONTINUING EDUCATION 29(14%)
3. TEMPORARY OR NON-DEGREE-RELATED POSITION 33(15%)
4. INACTIVE 1 (1%)
5. FOREIGN STUDENT 20 (9%)
6. UNREPORTED 0
12 (6%)
7. UNEMPLOYED
TOTAL DEGREES GRANTED
165(78%)
23(11%) 93(44%)
6
10
4
1
0
(3%)
(5%)
(4%)
(1%)
35(17%)
43(20%)
5 (2%)
21(10%)
0
3 (1%) 15 (7%)
47(22%) 212(100%)
PLACEMENT PERCENTAGES BY DEGREE AREA
The percentage figures, by department of degree area, of graduates who
are employed or otherwise engaged in activities of their choice (U.S
graduates. Bachelor's level only, total of categories 1-4 above) are
as follows:
ARTS & SCIENCES DIVISION
Chemistry
Computer Science
Mathematics
Occupational Safety &
Society & Technology
ON
MALE
FEMALE
tota:
—
100%
100%
33%
67%
100%
33%
67%
100%
Health
67%
26%
93%
45%
40%
85%
ENGINEERING DIVISION
Engineering Science
Environmental Engineering
Geological Engineering
Geophysical Engineering
Metallurgical Engineering
Mineral Processing Engineering
Mining Engineering
Petroleum Engineering
64%
7%
71%
75%
25%
100%
64%
36%
100%
75%
25%
100%
67%
22%
89%
00%
--
100%
72%
14%
86%
84%
11%
95%
173
WESTERN MONTANA COLLEGE, DILLON
PLACEMENT DATA 1982-83
MALES FEMALES
FIELD GRADUATED EMPLOYED GRADUATED EMPLOYED
Art Majors 2 1 2 1
Business Majors 0 0 2 0
English Majors 10 2 1
History/Social Science 6 3 2 1
Industrial Arts 12 6 0 0
Math Majors 3 3 3 3
Music Majors 0 0 3 3
Physical Education 9 8 5 1
Science Majors 4 4 1 1
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CARROLL COLLEGE GRADUATE SURVEY
BACHELOR OF ARTS DEGREES GRANTED, MAY 1982
Male
Female
COMMUNICATIONS ARTS
Management Trainee
Returned to Carroll
1
1
State of Montana 2
Graduate School 2
Theatre (Actress) 1
Self-employed 1
College Adm. Recruiter 1
Not in job market 2
ENGLISH
Returned to Carroll 1
Photographer 1
Graduate School 1
Hotel Management Trainee 1
Graduate School
PHILOSOPHY
Graduate School
Law School
Radio Broadcaster
1
1
1
RELIGIOUS
Enrolled
EDUCATION
in Vo-Tech
THEOLOGY
Seminarians
Retreat Center Assistant
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
Secondary Teacher
AND
THEOLOGY
1
Graduate School
BIOLOGY
Medical School
Dental School
Graduate School
Optometry School
Secondary Teacher
No Information
7
3
2
1
1
3
Medical School
Veterinary School
Graduate School
Medical Technologist
3
1
4
1
177
CARROLL COLLEGE GRADUATE SURVEY, cont.
Male
Female
MATHEMATICS
3-2 Engineering Program 4
Petroleum Engineer 1
Space Shuttle Engineer 1
College Instructor 1
Graduate School 1
Engineer, Fed. Govt. 1
Engineer 1
Secondary Teacher 1
3-2 Engineering Program
Graduate School
Secondary Teacher
Computer Lab Instructor
1
1
1
1
COMBINED SCIENCES: BIOLOGY-CHEMISTRY
Medical Technologists
DENTAL HYGIENE
Dental Hygienists
No Information
19
1
MEDICAL RECORDS ADMINISTRATION
Graduate School 2
Medical Record Adms .
NURSING
Nurses
14
ACCOUNTING
Self-employed
Accounting Firms
Graduate School
Bank
Law School
1
5
1
1
1
Self-employed
Accounting Firms
State of Montana
Oil Company
Sales
Bank
Saving and Loans
Deceased
1
2
5
2
1
1
2
1
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
Auto Association 1
State of Montana 2
Mining/Smelter 1
Sales 4
Bank 2
Finance 2
Self-employed 2
No Information 2
Credit Union
Law School
Not in job market
1
1
1
178
CARROLL COLLEGE GRADUATE SURVEY, cont,
Male
Female
ELEMENTARY/SPECIAL EDUCATION
Elementary Teacher 1
Elementary Teacher 3
Jesuit Volunteer Corps 1
ELEMEMT^RY EDUCATION
Elementary Teacher
No Information
5
1
Elementary Teacher
Clerk, Telephone Co.
Not in job market
11
1
3
HISTORY
Law School
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Secondary Teacher
Not in job market
No Information
6
1
1
PSYCHOLOGY
Secondary Counselor
Graduate School
2
1
Graduate School
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Graduate School
Law Enforcement
Law School
Sales/Office Equip,
No Information
2
1
2
1
1
Graduate School
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Secondary Teacher
SOCIOLOGY
Development ally
Disabled Adm.
Returned to Carroll
1
1
Physical Fitness Instructor 1
Social Agency 1
Group Home 2
Graduate School 1
Jesuit Volunteer Corps 1
Senator's Aide 1
Post Office Investigator 1
Not in job market 1
No Information 1
179
FLATHEAD VALLEY COMMUNITY COLLEGE GRADUATE SURVEY, 1983
(Survey results shown are only those students who responded.
Students continuing education are not included.)
Male
Female
BUSINESS ADMIN. TRANSFER DEGREE
Heavy Equip. Operator 1
Produce Clerk 1
BUSINESS MGMT. - 2yr
Clerk
Charter Bus Driver
Unemployed
DEGREE
1
1
1
Journeyman Clerk 1
Unemployed 1
Not seeking employment 1
SURVEY - 2yr. DEGREE
Crew Chief
Survey Tech.
1
1
SECRETARIAL SCIENCE - 2yr. DEGREE
Sales Clerk
Waitress/Asst . Mgr.
House Cleaning
1
1
1
FORESTRY TECHNICIAN
Forest Tech.
HUMAN SERVICES- 2yr. DEGREE
Skilled Laborer 1
House Director 1
Handicap Aide 1
Vet Asst . /Receptionist 1
Barmaid/tender 1
Eligibility Tech. 1
Interviewer 1
Research 1
Unemployed 2
Not seeking employment 2
180
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APPENDIX B
Status of the Montana Civilian Labor Force
By Sex, Race, and Age, by County
1980 Census
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THIRD CLASS
The Montana State Job Service and Training Division maintains 24
local Job Service Offices in the principal cities of Montana.
You are invited to call on any of these offices for assistance in
filling positions in your organization, additional labor narket
information, and for other services in connection with your
employment problems.
1 ,000 copies of this public document were published at an estimated cost of $4.85 per
copy for a total cost of $4,850.00, which includes $4,350.00 for printing and $500.00 for
distribution.
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